.■.V ,0^ 



■V' 









•1^^^- 



^v^^' ■\, 









'\ 



,0o 






vO o. 



„ .0-^ 




'^b ^ . 


,.^^^^^^ 






"^^ 




>./^' 


'"^z 




.•^^ 








^%'^ .. 






^ o 


C 




.^^ 


X-p 





V^ 



^ .0- 








1 > ''^ 






.# 




.c,^ 

•>'" 





0^ V " 



,0 o^ 



oo' 






,S^ ^. 






ff^. 






. '^c- 



• 0' 



^■^..v%^::v^ 



.0 0. 






>' .0- 



x^^' ^r>. 






o 



J- <:^"' ^ 



^^^ i> 



^\^^;;^j^> cf^.v -^^X /.^^^ 



'^oo^ 



^, .-^^ 



■^^^ 5^ 
















u^' 












«. >^ c^ -i 



l'^.''^^- 









^°°- . 




GREAT EVENTS, 



DESCRIBED B? 



DISTINGUISHED HISTORIANS, CHRONICLERS, 



OTHER WRITERS. 



COLIECTED AND IN PART TRANSLATED BT 



FRANCIS LIEBER. 



NEW YOUK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
FRANKLIN SQUARE. 

1856. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, by 

Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, 
«n th» Cleric's Office of the District Court of Massachusettt. 



TO MY WIFE : 

THE BEST MOTHER 1 KNOW 



PREFACE 



The Compiler of this Volume has long been con- 
vinced, that one of the most effective means of forming 
a strong character, awakening generous impulses, and 
invigorating the mind for future action, is, to encour- 
age an early familiarity with great events, and with 
those prominent men, whose bold deeds or persevering 
exertions were crowned with lasting effects, or whose 
loftiness of purpose renders them inspiring examples. 
He had, accordingly, made out a list of passages, in 
which, distinguished historians, eyewitnesses, or other 
writers of merit, have described events of historical 
moment and of thrilling interest. The striking forms 
and characteristic images of such narratives address 
themselves directly to the minds of the young, and the 
impression of a distinct picture is left by them, as the con- 
ception of a master artist is embodied upon his canvass. 

This compilation was originally intended to serve 
him in instructing his own son. When he was invited, 
therefore, to contribute to the series of publications, of 
which this Volume is intended to form a part, he thought 
that some of the extracts, selected for his own house- 
hold use, and therefore with at least a parental solici- 
tude, might possibly prove adapted to the improvement 
of the rising generation at large. With this feeling, he 
offers the following passages ; each of which he has 
prefaced with a few remarks, calculated, in some in- 
stances, as will at once be perceived, to suggest ideas 



6 PREFACE. 

rather to the parent or teacher, the guides of the young; 
reader, than directly to the latter. 

Although the Work is intended chiefly for the young, 
the Compiler feels convinced, that several of the extracts 
will be found new and instructive, by readers more ad- 
vanced in years. To the young, this Book is offered 
as a part of that gi'eat moral capital, which successive 
generations store up in history, as a nation collects a 
public capital, by adding the results of industry to the 
previous stock, in the employment of which these new 
values were obtained. To parents, it is offered as some 
of the most nutritious food which they can furnish to 
those who are intrusted to their care. A detailed ac- 
quaintance with momentous actions is far more impor- 
tant to the young, and indeed to every one, than is 
the mere knowledge of some moral truth. For a fa- 
miliar acquaintance with lofty characters, or with those 
extraordinary occurrences, in which the greatness of 
man's sufferings or enjoyment, and the extent of his 
losses or victories, banish trifling interests and vulgar 
motives, gives that, without which, high principles, 
however well known, will rarely be acted upon ; I mean, 
tone of character and nobleness of soul ; a sense, as 
well as a knowledge, of those principles. An early 
and familiar knowledge of great events fills the soul 
with noble images. It exalts the mind, and imbues it 
with respect for that which is great, good, elevated, 
and glorious. It represses forward ignorance and en- 
courages worthy ambition. It tends to foster both a 
true self-respect and a dutiful sense of what our ances- 
tors have done for us. 
Columbia, S. C, 1840. 

The Glossary and Index have been added by the Publishers, va 
conformity with the original plan for all works forming a part of 
•The School Library.' 



CONTENTS. 



Preface, 5 

The Battle at Thermopylae, [B. C. 480,] by Herodo- 
tus, . . . . . • 9 

The Death of Socrates, [B. C. 399,] by Plato, . 28 

The Surrender of the Roman Army at the Defile near 
Caudium, [B. C.319,] by LivY, 40 

Impeachment of Publius Cornelius Scipio, surnamed 
Africanus, and of Lucius Cornelius Scipio, sur- 
named Asiaticus, [B. C. 187,] by Livy, ... 60 

Delivery of the Four Swiss Forest Districts, (Wald- 
stadte,) [A.D. 1308,] by TscHUDi, 74 

The Battle at Sempach, [A.D. 1386,] by John von 

MULLER, 89 

The Death of Huss, [A. D. 1415,] by Theobald, . 99 
The Conquest of Constantinople, [A. D. 1453,] by 
Gibbon, Ill 

Martin Luther's Appearance before the Diet of the 
German Empire, at Worms, [A. D. 1521,] byMAR- 
heinecke, 141 

The Siege and Surrender of Rhodes, [A.D. 1522,] by 
the Abbe Vertot, 158 

The Sack of Rome, [A. D. 1527,] by James Bona- 
parte, an Eyewitness, 233 

Henry VIIL, King of England, and Catharine of 
Aragon, his Queen, before the Legatine Court^, 



8 CONTENTS. 

consisting of Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio, 
[A. D. 1527,] by George Cavendish, .... 270 

The Sieges of Leyden, [A. D. 1574,] and Ostend, 
[A.D. 1601,] by Bentivoglio, 287 

The Destruction of the Invincible Armada, [A.D. 
1588,] by John Stowe, .308 

The Siege of Zaragoza, [A.D. 1808,] by Southey 
and Napier, 327 

Glossary, 341 

Index, 381 



GREAT EVENTS. 



THE BATTLE AT THERMOPYLAE 

BY HERODOTUS. 

Herodotus, a contemporary of Pericles and Phidias, 
who flourished about four hundred and fifty years before 
Christ, was born at Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor. His 
native place being ruled over by the usurper Lygdamis, 
he left it, and went to Samos, where he probably acquired 
the melodious Ionic dialect, in which his history is com- 
posed ; the stern Doric dialect being that of the place of 
his birth. The great times in which he lived, and the glo- 
rious deeds which had been performed by the generation 
preceding his own, together with the perusal of previous 
historians, awakened in him, at an early period, the desire 
to describe these deeds, and to travel into foreign coun- 
tries, and inquire into the various institutions and manners 
of the different tribes. When the eighty-first Olympiad* 
w'dfi celebrated, by the Olympic games, Herodotus read 
portions of his history to the immense assemblage of peo- 
ple, called together by this national feast. The universal 
applause, with which his compositions were received, in- 
cited him to employ many successive years to extend and 
perfect his work. Ancient writers mention a tradition, that 
Thucydides, when a youth of sixteen years of age, while 
listening to Herodotus, as he was thus reading parts of 
his work, was so much affected by this noble performance, 
that he shed tears ; a tradition, which, it is proper to men- 
tion, has been doubted by many recent critics. Hero- 

* The Greeks reckoned by Olympiads,, or periods of four years each, 
at which periods, the Olympic games were celebrated. See Glossary, 
at the end of the Volume. 



10 GREAT EVENTS. 

dotus has been called, by the ancients, the ' Father of His- 
tory,' because he was the first who presented his work, not 
merely as a series of events, strung together like beads, 
but as a connected whole, composed with taste, and the 
pervading judgement of one who remains master over the 
whole subject. Herodotus took much pains, to ascertain 
facts and acquire information ; and, in so far as we inquire 
only, whether he conscientiously gave what he had learnt, 
he unquestionably deserves the character of great veraci- 
ty. Historical criticism, however, began with Thucydides. 
Although Herodotus has, at times, related superficial im- 
pressions, or may, at others, have allowed himself to be 
imposed upon, (as, for instance, in Egypt,) his work, which 
unites, with the childlike simplicity of the historical parts 
of the Old Testament, an Homeric grace, is, neverthe- 
less, a fund of invaluable information. Respecting the 
Persian wars, we must not forget, that he wrote very short- 
ly after ; and, very evidently, was at great pains to learn 
all the details, which it was in his power to collect. He 
died at a very advanced age. 

Conquest after conquest having been added to the vast 
empire of Persia, its ruler longed to extend his dominion 
over Europe, also. A first attempt at subduing Greece 
had been made, in the year four hundred and ninety be- 
fore Christ, when the Persians were repelled and defeated, 
at Marathon, a hamlet in Attica, (whither the Persians had 
already advanced,) by the Athenians, and some allies, 
under Miltiades. Aristides fought, likewise, in this battle : 
so did ^schylus. Ten years later, the attempt to reduce 
Greece into a Persian satrapy, (or province,) was renew- 
ed by Xerxes, then King of Persia. But the heroic sac- 
rifice of Leonidas, at Thermopylae, and the victories at Sal- 
amis and Plataeae once more repelled the swarming hordes 
of Asia, and in a manner, that the attempt at conquest was 
never repeated. It is impossible for us fully to compre- 
hend the unspeakable blessings, which we owe to these 
heroic exertions of the Greeks. When we consider, that 
our whole civilization is, in a great measure, but a fruit of 
Greek civilization, received through Rome, and, at a later 
period, again, through the scattering of the literary treas- 
ures of Greece over Europe, by the conquest of Constan- 
tinople ; — and, on the other hand, how all this civilization 
must have been nipped in the bud, had Greece become a 
Persian province, and, of course, been assimilated to 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYL^. 11 

Asia, as has been the case with Asia Minor, — we can per- 
ceive only, that no individual mind is sufficiently capacious 
to follow out the darkness and torpor which, it would seem 
certain, must have prevailed, where now the greatest men- 
tal activity, the highest degree of civilization, exists. Nor 
is the battle at Thermopylae, fought on the ninth of July, 
four hundred and eighty years before Christ, an unessen- 
tial link in this chain of great events ; because all, who 
fought, fell, and the enemy would not be hindered from 
penetrating further into Greece. The example of Leoni- 
das, and his devoted band, became a glorious example of 
the invincible power, which the love of country and liber- 
ty may impart to the human soul ; it became a blessing 
and bequest to all Greece, then, and at later periods ; 
and, through Greece, a bequest to the history of mankind, 
a thrilling example for all ages : for which reason, it has 
been considered proper to select it for this place. The 
following extract is from the seventh book of Herodotus, 
called Polymnia. 

Xerxes, with his land forces, marching through Thes- 
saly and Achaia, came, on the third day, to the territories 
of the Melians. While he was in Thessaly, he made a 
trial of his cavalry, against those of the Thessahans, 
which he had heard were the best in Greece ; but, in 
this contest, the inferiority of the Greeks was evidently 
conspicuous. The Onochonus was the only river in 
Thessaly, which did not afford sufficient water for the 
army. Of those of Achaia, the Apidanus, the greatest 
of them all, hardly sufficed. 

Hence, Xerxes advanced to Melis, near a bay of the 
sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide may be 
seen every day. Near this bay is an extensive plain, 
wide in one part, and contracted in another ; round this 
plain are certain lofty and inaccessible mountains, called 
the Trachinian rocks, and enclosing the whole region of 
Melis. Leaving Achaia, the first city near this bay is 
Anticyra. This is washed by the river Sperchius ; 
which, rising in the country of the Enieni, here empties 
itself into the sea. At the distance of twenty furlongs, is 
another river, called Dyras, which is said to' have risen. 



12 GREAT EVENTS. 

spontaneously, from the earth, to succor Hercules, when 
he was burning. A third river, called Melas, flows at 
the distance of twenty furlongs more. 

Within five furlongs of this last river, stands the town 
of Trachis. In this part, the country is the widest, ex- 
tending from the mountains to the sea, and comprehen- 
ding a space of twenty-two thousand plethra.* In the 
mountainous tract which encloses Trachinia, there is an 
opening, to the west of Trachis, through which, the 
Asopus winds round the base of the mountain. 

To the west of this, another small stream is found, 
named the Phoenix ; it rises in these mountains, and 
empties itself into the Asopus. The most contracted 
part of the country is that, which lies nearest the Phoe- 
nix, where the road will only admit one carriage to pass. 
From the Phoenix to Thermopylae, are fifteen furlongs : 
between the Phoenix and Thermopylae, is a village nam- 
ed Anthela ; passing which, the Asopus meets the sea. 
The country contiguous to Anthela, is spacious. Here 
may be seen a temple of Ceres Amphictyonis, the seats 
of the Amphictyons, and a shrine of Amphictyon himself. 

Xerxes encamped in Trachinia, at Melis ; the Greeks, 
in the Straits. These Straits, the Greeks, in general, 
call Thermopylae ; the people of the country, Pyls, only. 
Here, then, were the two armies stationed ; Xerxes oc- 
cupying all the northern region, as far as Trachinia, the 
Greeks, that of the south. 

The Grecian army, which here waited the approach 
of the Persian, was composed of three hundred Spartans, 
in complete armor ; five hundred Tegeatae, and as many 
Mantineans ; one hundred and twenty men from Or- 
chomenus of Arcadia ; a thousand men from the rest of 
Arcadia ; four hundred Corinthians ; two hundred from 
Phhus ; and eighty from Mycenae. The above came 
from the Peloponnesus. From Bosotia, there were seven 
hundred Thespians, and four hundred Thebans. 

In addition to the above, the aid of all the Opuntian 
Locrians had been solicited, together with a thousand 

* A plethron is one hundred feet. 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYL^. 13 

Phoceans. To obtain the assistance of these, the Greeks 
had previously sent emissaries among them ; saying, that 
they were the forerunners only of another, and more nu- 
merous body, whose arrival was every day expected. 
They added, that the defence of the sea was confided to 
the people of Athens and jEgina, in conjunction with the 
rest of the fleet ; that there was no occasion for alarm, 
as the invader of Greece was not a god, but a mere hu- 
man being ; that there never was, nor could be, any mor- 
tal superior to the vicissitudes of fortune ; that the most 
exalted characters were exposed to the greatest evils. 
He, therefore, a mortal, now advancing to attack them, 
would suiFer for his temerity. These arguments proved 
effectual, and they accordingly marched to Trachis, to 
join their aUies. 

These troops were commanded by different officers, 
of their respective countries ; but the man, most regard- 
ed, and who was intrusted with the chief command, was 
Leonidas, of Sparta. His ancestors were Anaxandrides, 
Leon, Eurycratides, Anaxander, Eurycrates, Polydorus, 
Alcamenes, Teleclus, Archelaus, Agesilaus, Doryssus, 
Leobotes, Echestratus, Agis, Eurysthenes, Aristodemus, 
Aristomachus, Cleodseus, Hyllus, and Hercules. 

An accident had placed him on the throne of Sparta, 
for, as he had tw^o brothers, older than himself, Cleome- 
nes and Dorieus, he had entertained no thoughts of the 
government ; but Cleomenes dying without male issue, 
and Dorieus not surviving, (for he ended his days in 
Sicily,) the crown came to Leonidas, who was older 
than Cleombrotus, the youngest of the sons of Anaxan- 
drides, and who had married the daughter of Cleomenes. 
On the present occasion, he took with him, to Thermop- 
ylas, a body of three hundred chosen men, all of whom 
had children. To these, he added those Theban troops, 
whose number I have before mentioned, and who were 
conducted by Leontiades, son of Eurymachus. Leoni- 
das had selected the Thebans to accompany him, because 
a suspicion generally prevailed, that they were secretly 
attached to the Medes. These, therefore, he summoned 
to attend him, to ascertain whether they would actually 

2 G. E. 



14 GREAT EVENTS. 

contribute their aid, or openly withdraw themselves from 
the Grecian league. With sentiments perfectly hostile, 
they nevertheless sent the assistance required. 

The march of this body, under Leonidas,' was accel- 
erated by the Spartans, that their example might stimu- 
late their allies to action, and that they might not make 
their delay a pretence for going over to the Modes. The 
celebration of the Carnian festival* protracted the march 
of their main body ; but it was their intention to follow, 
with all imaginable expedition, leaving only a small de- 
tachment for the defence of Sparta. The rest of the al- 
lies were actuated by similar motives ; for the Olympic 
games happened to recur at this period ; and, as they did 
not expect an engagement would immediately take place, 
at Thermopylae, they sent only a detachment before them. 

Such were the motives of the confederate body. The 
Greeks, who were already assembled at Thermopylae, 
were seized with so much terror, on the approach of the 
Persian, that they consulted about a retreat. Those of 
the Peloponnesus were, in general, of opinion, that they 
should return, and guard the isthmus ; but, as the Pho- 
ceans and Locrians were exceedingly averse to this meas- 
ure, Leonidas prevailed on them to continue on their 
post. He resolved, however, to send messengers round 
to all the States, requiring supplies, stating that their num-- 
ber was much too small, to oppose the Medes with any 
effect. 

While they thus deliberated, Xerxes sent a horseman, 
to examine their number and their motions. He had be- 
fore heard, in Tliessaly, that a small band was collected 
at this passage ; that they were led by Lacedaemonians, 
and by Leonidas, of the race of Hercules. The person 
employed performed his duty : all those, who were with- 
out the intrenchment, he was able to reconnoiter ; thpse 
who were within, for the purpose of defending it, eluded 
his observation. The Lacedaemonians were, at that pe- 

* A festival celebrated at Sparta, in honor of Apollo, the heathen 
god of the fine arts, of medicine, poetry, music, and eloquence. This 
festival lasted seven days. It was so called, from Carneus, one of the 
oames of Apollo. 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYL^. 15 

riod, stationed without ; of these, some were performing 
gymnastic exercises, while others were employed in comb- 
ing their hair. He was greatly astonished ; but he leis- 
urely surveyed their number and employments, and re- 
turned, without molestation, for they despised him too 
much to pursue him. He related to Xerxes all that he 
had seen. 

Xerxes, on hearing the above, was little aware of what 
was really the case ; that this people were preparing them- 
selves, either to conquer or to die. The thing appeared 
to him so ridiculous, that he sent for Demaratus,* the 
son of Ariston, who was then with the army. On his 
appearing, the King questioned him, on this behavior of 
the Spartans, expressing his desire to know what it might 
intimate. " I have before, sir," said Demaratus, " spok- 
en to you of this people, at the commencement of this 
expedition ; and, as I remember, when I related to you 
what I knew you would have occasion to observe, you 
treated me with contempt. I am conscious of the danger 
of declaring the truth, in opposition to your prejudices ; 
but I will, nevertheless, do this. It is the determination 
of these men to dispute with us, and they are preparing 
themselves, accordingly. It is their custom, before any 
enterprise of danger, to adorn their hair. Of this, you 
may be assured, that, if you vanquish these and their 
countrymen in Sparta, no other nation will presume to 
take up arms against you ; you are now advancing to at- 
tack a people whose realms and city are the fairest, and 
whose troops are the bravest, of Greece." These words 
seemed to Xerxes preposterous enough ; but he demand- 
ed, a second time, how so small a number could contend 
with his army. '' Sir," said he, " I will submit to suf- 
fer the punishment of falsehood, if what I say does not 
happen." 

Xerxes was still incredulous : he accordingly kept his 
position, without any movement, for four days, in expec- 
tation of seeing them retreat. On the fifth day, observing 
that they continued on their post, merely, as he supposed, 

* Demaratus had been king of Sparta, but, having been deposed 
from that dignity, had joined Xerxes. 



16 GREAT EVENTS. 

from the most Impudent rashness, he became much exas- 
perated, and sent against them a detachment of Medes 
and Cissians, with a command to bring them ahve to his 
presence. The Medes, in consequence, attacked them, 
and lost a considerable number. A re-enforcement ar- 
rived ; but, though the onset was severe, no impression 
was made. It now became universally conspicuous, and 
no less so to the King himself, that he had many troops, 
but few men. The above engagement continued all day. 

The Medes, after being very roughly treated, retired, 
and were succeeded by the band of Persians, called, by 
the King, ' the immortal,' and commanded by Hydarnes. 
These, it was supposed, would succeed, w^ithout the small- 
est difficulty. They commenced the attack, but made 
no greater impression than the Medes ; their superior 
numbers were of no advantage, on account of the nar- 
rowness of the place ; and their spears, also, were shorter 
than those of the Greeks. The Lacedaemonians fought 
in a manner, which deserves to be recorded ; their own 
excellent discipline, and the unskilfulness of their adver- 
saries, were, in many instances, remarkable ; and not the 
least so, when, in close ranks, they effected a retreat. 
The Barbarians,* seeing them retire, pursued them, with 
a great and clamorous shout ; but, on their near approach, 
the Greeks faced about to receive them. The loss of the 
Persians was prodigious, and a few also of the Spartans 
fell. The Persians, after successive efforts, made with 
great bodies of their troops, to gain the pass, were una- 
ble to accomplish it, and obliged to retire. 

It is said of Xerxes, himself, that, being a spectator 
of the contest, he was so greatly alarmed, for the safety 
of his men, that he leaped thrice from his throne. On the 
following day, the Barbarians succeeded no better than be- 
fore. They went to the onset, as against a contemptible 
number, whose wounds, they supposed, would hardly 
permit them to renew the combat : but the Greeks, 
drawn up in regular divisions, fought, each nation on it? 
respective post, except the Phoceans, who were station- 

* T^« Greeks called the inhabitants of foreign nations, Barbarians 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYLiE. 17 

ed on the summit of the mountain, to defend the pass. 
The Persians, experiencing a repetition of the same 
treatment, a second time retired. 

While the King was exceedingly perplexed, what con 
duct to pursue, in the present emergence, Ephialtes, the 
son of Eurydemus, a Mehan,* demanded an audience. 
He expected to receive some great recompense, for 
showing him the path, which led over the mountain to 
Thermopylae ; and he, indeed, it was, who thus rendered 
ineffectual the valor of those Greeks, who perished on 
this station. This man, through fear of the Lacedaemo- 
nians, fled, afterwards, into Thessaly ; but the Pylagorae, 
calling a council of the Amphictyons, at Pylaea, for this 
express purpose, set a price on his head, and he was 
afterward slain by Athenades, a Trachinian, at Anticyra, 
to which place he had returned. Athenades was induc- 
ed to put him to death, for some other reason, which I 
shall afterwards explain ; he nevertheless received the 
reward offered by the Lacedaemonians. This, however, 
was the end of Ephialtes. 

On this subject, there is also a different report ; for 
it is said, that Onetes, son of Phanagoras, a Carystian, 
and Corydalus, of Anticyra, were the men who informed 
the King of this path, and conducted the Persians round 
the mountain. This, with me, obtains no credit ; for, 
nothing is better known, than that the Pylagorae did not 
set a price on the heads of Onetes or Corydalus, but on 
that of Ephialtes, the Trachinian, after, as may be pre- 
sumed, a due investigation of the matter. It is also cer- 
tain, that Ephialtes, conscious of his crime, endeavored 
to save himself by flight. Onetes, being a Melian, might, 
perhaps, if tolerably acquainted with the country, have 
known this passage ; but Ephialtes was the man, who 
showed the path over the mountain, and him I write down 
as the wicked one. 

The intelligence of Ephialtes, gave the King infinite 
satisfaction, and he instantly detached Hydarnes, with the 
forces under his command, to avail himself of it. They 

* Ephialtes is, in the next paragraph, called a Trachinian. Tra- 
ehinia was a part of Melis. 



18 GREAT EVENTS. 

left the camp at the first approach of evening. The 
Melians, the natives of the country, discovered this path, 
and by it conducted the Thessahans against the Pho- 
ceans, who had defended It by an Intrenchment, and deem- 
ed themselves secure. It had never, however, proved 
of any advantage to the Melians. 

The path, of which we are speaking, commences at 
the river Asopus. This stream flows through an aper- 
ture of the mountain, called Anopae, which is also the 
name of the path. This is continued, through the whole 
length of the mountain, and terminates near the town of 
Alpenus. This is the first city of the Locrlans, on the 
side next the Melians, near the rock called Melampygus, 
by the residence of the Cercopes.* It is narrowest at 
this point. 

Following this track, which I have described, the Per- 
sians passed the Asopus, and marched all night, keeping 
the (Etean mountains on the right, and the Trachinian 
on the left. At the dawn of morning, they found them- 
selves at the summit, where, as I have before described, 
a band of a thousand Phoceans, in arms, were stationed, 
both to defend their ow^n country and this pass. The 
passage, beneath, was defended by those whom I have 
mentioned. Of this, above, the Phoceans had voluntarily 
promised Leonldas, to undertake the charge. 

The approach of the Persians was discovered to the 
Phoceans, In this manner. While they were ascending 
the mountain, they were totally concealed by the thick 
groves of oak ; but, from the stillness of the air, they 
were discovered, by the noise they made by trampling on 
the leaves ; a thing which might naturally happen. The 
Phoceans ran to arms ; and, in a moment, the Barbari- 
ans appeared, who, seeing a number of men, precipitate- 
ly arming themselves, were at first struck with astonish- 
ment. They did not expect an adversary, and they had 
fallen in among armed troops. Hydarnes, apprehending 
that the Phoceans might prove to be Lacedaemonians, In- 
quired of Ephiakes who they were. When he was 

"* These people were robbers. 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYL^. 19 

informed, he drew up the Persians in order of battle. 
The Phoceans, not able to sustain the heavy flight of 
arrows, retreated up the mountain, imagining themselves 
the objects of this attack, and expecting certain destruc- 
tion. But the troops with Hydarnes and Ephialtes did 
not think it worth their while to pursue them, and de- 
scended rapidly the opposite side of the mountain. 

To those Greeks stationed in the Straits of Thermop- 
ylae, Megistias, the soothsayer, had previously, from in- 
spection of the entrails,* predicted that death awaited 
them in the morning. Some deserters had also informed 
them of the circuit the Persians had taken ; and this intelli- 
gence was, in the course of the night, circulated through 
the camp. All this was confirmed by their sentinels, 
who, early in the morning, fled down the sides of the 
mountain. In this predicament, the Greeks called a 
council, who were greatly divided in their opinions. 
Some were for remaining on their stations, others advised 
a retreat. In consequence of their not agreeing, many 
of them dispersed to their respective cities ; a part re- 
solved to continue with Leonidas. 

It is said, that those who retired, only did so in com- 
pliance with the wishes of Leonidas, who was desirous to 
preserve them : but he thought that he, himself, with his 
Spartans, could not, without the greatest ignominy, for- 
sake the post they had come to defend. I am mynelf in- 
clined to believe, that Leonidas, seeing his allies not only 
reluctant, but totally averse, to resist the danger which 
menaced them, consented to their retreat. His own re- 
turn, he considered as dishonorable, while he was con- 
vinced, that his defending his post would equally secure 
his own fame, and the good of Sparta. In the very be- 
ginning of these disturbances, the Spartans, having con- 
sulted the oracle, were informed, that either their King 
must die, or Sparta be vanquished by the Barbarians. 
The oracle was communicated in hexameter verses, and 
was to this effect : 

* The ancient heathens had several modes of divination, one of 
which vvasj by the entrails of animals killed for sacrifice. 



20 GREAT EVENTS. 

*• To you who dwell in Sparta's ample walls. 
Behold, a dire alternative befalls ; 
Your glorious city must in ruins lie, 
Or, slain by Persian arms, a king must die ; 
A king, descended from Herculean blood. 
For, lo ! he comes, and cannot be withstood ; 
Nor bulls nor lions can dispute the field, 
'T is Jove's own force, and iliis or that must yield.*' 

I am unwilling to presume of the allies that departed, that, 
differing in opinion from their leader, they dishonorably 
des-erted. I should also suppose, that the conduct of 
Leonidas was the result of his revolving the oracle in his 
mind, and of his great desire to secure to the Spartans, 
alone, the glory of this memorable action. 

To me, it is no small testimony of the truth of the 
above, that, among those whom Leonidas dismissed, w^as 
Megistias himself. He was of Acarnania, and, as some 
affirm, descended from Melampus. He accompanied 
Leonidas on this expedition, and, from the entrails, had 
predicted what would happen : he refused, however, to 
leave his friends, and satisfied himself with sending away 
his only son, who had followed his father on this occa- 
sion. 

Obedient to the direction of their leader, the confeder- 
ates retired. The Thespians and Thebans alone remain- 
ed with the Spartans : the Thebans, indeed, very reluc- 
tantly ; but they were detained by Leonidas, as hostages. 
The Thespians were very zealous in the cause, and, 
refusing to abandon their friends, perished with them. 
The leader of the Thespians, was Demophilus, son of 
Diodromas. 

Xerxes, early in the morning, offered a solemn libation, 
then, waiting till that period of the day, when the forum 
is fullest of people,* he advanced from his camp. To the 
above measure, he had been advised by Ephialtes. The 
descent from the mountain is of much shorter extent, than 
the circuitous ascent. The Barbarians, with Xerxes, 
approached. Leonidas and his Greeks proceeded, as to 
inevitable death, a much greater space from the defile 
than he had yet done. Till now, they had defended 

* About nine o'clock in the morning. 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYLiE. 21 

themselves behind their intrenchment, fighting in the most 
contracted part of the passage ; but, on this day, they en- 
gaged on a wider space, and a multitude of their oppo- 
nents fell. Behind each troop, officers were stationed, 
with whips in their hands, compelling, with blows, their 
men to advance. Many of them fell into the sea, where 
they perished ; many were trodden under foot by their 
own troops, without exciting the smallest pity or regard. 
The Greeks, conscious that their destruction was at hand, 
from those who had taken the circuit of the mountain, 
exerted themselves, with the most desperate valor, against 
the Barbarian assailants. 

Their spears being broken in pieces, they had recourse 
to their swords. Leonidas fell in the engagement, having 
greatly signalized himself; and with him, many Spartans 
of distinction, as well as others, of inferior note. I am 
acquainted with the names of all the three hundred. 
Many illustrious Persians, also, were slain, among whom, 
were Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, sons of Darius, by 
Phrataguna, the daughter of Artanes. Artanes was the 
brother of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and grandson 
of Arsamis. Having married his daughter to Darius, 
as she was an only child, all his wealth went with her. 

These two brothers of Xerxes fell, as they were con- 
tending for the body of Leonidas. Here the conflict was 
the most severe ; till, at length, the Greeks, by their su- 
perior valor, four times repelled the Persians, and drew 
aside the body of their prince. In this situation, they 
continued, till Ephialtes and his party approached. As 
soon as the Greeks perceived them at hand, the scene 
was changed, and they retreated to the narrowest part of 
the pass. Having repassed their intrenchment, they 
posted themselves, all except the Thebans, in a compact 
body, on a hill which is at the entrance of the Straits, and 
where a lion of stone* has been erected, in honor of Le- 

* Two epigrams on this subject may be found in the Analecta Vete- 
rum Poet. Grgec. vol. i. 132, vol. ii. 162. The bones of Leonidas vj^ere 
carried back to Sparta, by Pausanias, forty years after his death ; they 
were placed in a monument, opposite the theatre. Every year they 
pronounced, in this place, a funeral oration, and celebrated games, ai 
which Spartans only were suffered to contend. 



22 GREAT EVENTS. 

onidas. In this situation, they who had swords left used 
them against the enemy ; the rest exerted themselves, with 
their hands and their teeth. The Barbarians rushing on 
them, some in front, after overturning their wall, others 
surrounding and pressing them in all directions, finally 
overpowered them. 

Such was the conduct of the Lacedaemonians and Thes- 
pians ; but none of them distinguished themselves so 
much, as Dieneces the Spartan. A speech of his is re- 
corded, which he made before they came to any engage- 
ment. A certain Trachinian, having observed, that the 
Barbarians would send forth such a shower of arrows, that 
their multitude would obscure the sun, he repHed, like a 
man ignorant of fear, and despising the numbers of the 
Medes, — " Our Trachinian friend promises us great ad- 
vantages : if the Medes obscure the sun's light, we shall 
fight with them in the shade, and be protected from the 
heat." Many other sayings have been handed down, 
as monuments of this man's fame. 

Next to him, the most distinguished, of the Spartans, 
were, Alpheus and Maron, two brothers, the sons of Or- 
siphantus. Of the Thespians, the most conspicuous was 
Dithyrambus, son of Harmatidas. 

All these were interred in the place, where they fell, 
together with such of the confederates as were slain before 
the separation of the forces by Leonidas. On their tomb, 
was this inscription : 

'* Here, once, from Pelops' sea-girt region brought, 
Four thousand men three hostile millions fought." 

This was applied to them all, collectively. The Spar- 
tans were thus distinguished : 

*« Go, stranger, and to listening Spartans tell, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we fell." 

There was one also appropriated to the prophet Megis- 
tias : 

" By Medes cut off, beside Sperchius' wave, 
The seer Megistias fills this glorious grave : 
Who stood, the fate he well foresaw, to meet, 
And, linked with Sparta's leaders, scorned retreat." 

All these ornaments and inscriptions, that of Megistias 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYL^. 23 

alone excepted, were here placed by the Amphictyons. 
Simonides, son of Leoprepis, inscribed the one to the hon- 
or of Megistias, from the ties of private hospitahty. 

Of these three hundred, there were two, named Eury- 
tus and Aristodemus : both of them, consistently with the 
discipline of their country, might have secured themselves, 
by retiring to Sparta, for Leonidas had permitted them to 
leave the camp ; but they continued at Alpenus, being 
both afflicted by a violent disorder of the eyes ; or, if 
they had not thought proper to return home, they had the 
alternative of meeting death in the field with their fellow- 
soldiers. In this situation, they differed in opinion, what 
conduct to pursue. Eurytus, having heard of the circuit 
made by the Persians, called for his arms, and, putting 
them on, commanded his helot to conduct him to the 
battle. The slave did so, and immediately fled, while 
his master died, fighting vahantly. Aristodemus pusil- 
lanimously stayed where he was. If either Aristodemus, 
being individually diseased, had retired home, or if they 
had returned together, I cannot think that the Spartans 
could have shown any resentment against them ; but, as 
one of them died in the field, which the other, who was 
precisely in the same circumstances, refused to do, it was 
impossible not to be greatly incensed against Aristode- 
mus. 

The safe return of Aristodemus to Sparta is by some 
thus related and explained. There are others, who as- 
sert, that he was despatched on some business from the 
army, and might, if he had pleased, have been present at 
the battle, but that he saved himself, by lingering on the 
way. They add, that his companion, employed on the 
same business, returned to the battle, and there fell. 

Aristodemus, on his return, was branded with disgrace 
and infamy. No one would speak with him ; no one 
would su|ii)ly him with fire ; and the opprobrious term 
of tremblerjj^jvas annexed to his name : but he afterwards, 
at the battle of Plataese, effectually atoned for his formei 
conduct. 

It is also said, that another of the three hundred sur- 
vived ; his name was Pantites, and he had been sent on 



24 GREAT EVENTS. 

some business to Thessaly. Returning to Sparta, he felt 
himself in disgrace, and put an end to his life. 

The Thebans, under the command of Leontiades, 
hitherto constrained by force, had fought with the Greeks, 
against the Persians ; but, as soon as they saw that the 
Persians were victorious, when Leonidas and his party 
retired to the hill, they separated themselves from the 
Greeks. In the attitude of suppliants, they approached 
the Barbarians, assuring them, what was really the truth, 
that they were attached to the Medes ; that they had 
been among the first to render earth and water ; that they 
had only come to Thermopylae on compulsion, and could 
not be considered as accessary to the slaughter of the 
king's troops. The Thessalians confirming the truth of 
tvhat they had asserted, their lives were preserved. Some 
of them, however, were slain ; for, as they approached, 
the Barbarians put several to the sword ; but the greater 
part, by the order of Xerxes, had the royal marks im- 
pressed on them, beginning with Leontiades himself. Eu- 
rymachus, his son, was afterwards slain, at the head of 
four hundred Thebans, by the people of Platseae, while he 
was making an attempt on their city. 

In this manner, the Greeks fought at Thermopylae. 
Xerxes afterwards sent for Demaratus, and thus addres- 
sed him : "I have, already, Demaratus, had experience 
of your truth and integrity ; every thing has happened, as 
you foretold ; tell me, then, how many of the Lace- 
daemonians may there be left ? how many of like valor 
with those who have perished } or, are they all alike .'*" 
" Sir," rephed Demaratus, "the Lacedaemonians are a 
numerous people, and possessed of many cities ; but I will 
answer your question more particularly. Sparta, itself, 
contains eight thousand men, all of whom are equal in val- 
or to those who fought here ; the other Lacedaemonians, 
though inferior to these, are still brave." " Tell me, 
then," returned Xerxes, "how we may subdue these 
men, with least trouble : you, who have been their Prince, 
must know what measures they are likely to pursue." 

" Since," answered Demaratus, "you place a confi- 
dence in my opinion, it is proper that I should speak to 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYLAE. 25 

you from the best of my judgement ; I would, therefore, 
recommend you to send a fleet of three hundred vessels 
to the coast of Lacedaemonia. Contiguous to this, is an 
island named Cythera, of which Chilon, the wisest of our 
countrymen, observed, that it would be better for the 
Spartans, if it were buried in the sea, foreseeing the prob- 
ability of such a measure as I now recommend. From 
this island, your troops may spread terror over Sparta. 
Thus, a war so very near them, may remove from you 
any apprehension of their assisting the rest of Greece, 
which will then be open to your arras, and which, if sub- 
dued, will leave Sparta hardly able to oppose you. If 
my advice be disregarded, you may expect what follows. 
There is a narrow isthmus in the Peloponnesus, in which 
all its people will assemble, in resistance to your arms, 
and where you will have far more violent contests to sus- 
tain, than you have here experienced^ If you execute 
what I propose, you may, without a battle, become mas- 
ter of the isthmus, with all the cities of the Peloponnesus." 
Achsemenes, the brother of Xerxes, and commander 
of the fleet, was present at this interview. Fearful that 
the King might do as he had been advised, he thus dehv- 
ered his sentiments : " You seem," said he, " too much 
inclined to listen to a man, who either envies your pros- 
perity, or wishes to betray you. It is the character of 
Greeks, to envy the successful, and to hate their superi- 
ors- W^Ti'ave already lost, by shipwreck, four hundred 
vessels ; if we detach three hundred more to the Pelo- 
ponnesus, the force of our opponents will be equal to our 
own. Our united fleet will be far superior to theirs, and, 
with respect to any efforts they can make, invincible. 
If your forces by land, and your fleet by sea, advance at 
the same time, they will be able mutually to assist each 
other : if you separate them, the fleet will not be able to 
assist you, nor you the fleet. It becomes you to dehb- 
erate well on your own aflJairs, and not to concern your- 
self about those of your enem.ies, nor to inquire, where 
they will commence their hostihties, what measures they 
will take, or how numerous they are. Let them attend 
to their afl?airs, we to ours. If the Lacedaemonians shall 

3 ' G. E'^ 



26 GREAT EVENTS. 

presume to attack the Persians, they will be far from re- 
pairing the loss they have already sustained." 

" Achsemenes," answered Xerxes, "I approve your 
counsel, and will follow it. The sentiments of Demara- 
tus are, I well know, dictated by his regard to my inter- 
ests ; but your advice, to me, seems preferable. I can- 
not be persuaded, that he has any improper intentions, 
events having proved the wisdom of his former counsels. 
One man frequently envies the prosperity of another, and 
indulges in secret sentiments of hatred against him ; nei- 
ther will he, when he requires it, give him salutary ad- 
vice, unless, indeed, from some surprising effort of vir- 
tue ; but a friend exuhs in a friend's happiness ; has no 
sentiments for him but those of the truest kindness, and 
gives him always the best advice. Let no one, therefore, 
in future, use any invective against Demaratus, who is my 
friend." 

When Xerxes had finished, he went to view the dead, 
among whom was Leonidas. When he heard that he 
had been the Prince, and leader of Sparta, he ordered his 
head to be cut off, and his body to be suspended on a 
cross. This incident is no small proof to me, among 
many others, that Xerxes indulged the warmest indigna- 
tion against Leonidas, while he was alive. He otherwise 
would not have treated him, when dead, with such bar- 
barity. I know that the Persians, of all mankind, most 
highly honor military virtue. The orders, however, of 
the King, were executed. 

I shall now return to the thread of our history. The 
Spartans were the first who were acquainted with the 
King's designs against Greece ; they sent to the oracle, 
on the occasion, and received the answer I have related. 
The intelligence was communicated to them in an extra- 
ordinary manner. Demaratus, the son of Ariston, had 
taken refuge among the Medes, and, as there is every 
reason to suppose, was not friendly to the Spartans. He, 
however, it was, who informed them of what was medita- 
ted, whether to serve or insult them, must be left to con- 
jecture. When Xerxes had resolved on this expedition 
against Greece, Demaratus, who was at Susa, and ac- 



BATTLE AT THERMOPYLAE. 27 

quainted with his intentions, determined to inform the 
Lacedaemonians. As this was both difficult and danger- 
ous, he employed the following means : he took two tab- 
lets, and erased the wax from each ; then inscribed the 
purpose of the King on the wood. This done, he replaced 
the wax, that the several guards, on the road, from see- 
ing the empty tablets, might have no suspicion of the 
business. When these were delivered at Lacedaemon, 
the people had no conception of their meaning, till, as I 
have been informed, Gorgo, the daughter of Cleomenes, 
and wife of Leonidas, removed the difficulty. Imagin- 
ing what might be intended, she ordered the wax to be 
removed, and thus made the contents of the tablets known. 
The LacedEemonians, after examining what was inscribed 
on the wood, circulated the inteUigence through Greece. 



28 GREAT EVENTS 

THE DEATH OF SOCRATES. 

BY PLATO. 

Plato, one of the greatest philosophers of antiquity, was 
\he disciple of Socrates, who died about four hundred years 
before Christ. The remark, which was made in the intro- 
ductory lines to the preceding extract, as to the succession 
of Greek master minds, in history and poetry, — the master 
kindling a sacred fire in the pupil, who rises to become 
a master in turn, — applies, likewise, to the philosophy of 
Greece. Socrates was the master of Plato, or his " men- 
tal father," as the sacred books of the Hindoos call the 
teacher of moral truths. Plato, in Hke manner, became 
the master of Aristotle. 

When Socrates began to teach at Athens, the Sophists 
had greatly perverted the cultivation of the intellect, to the 
serious detriment of the pursuit of truth, and the stability of 
moral principles. They sharpened the intellect, indeed ; 
but, like a pointed instrument, which may be used ibr the 
worst purposes. Right and Wrong, Just and Unjust, A^ir- 
tuous and Vicious, became, with them, so many technical 
terms, only designating a degree of convenience or incon- 
venience, according to circumstances. Socrates was the 
first, who taught, once more, virtue and purity, as objects 
worthy of being cultivated for their own sake, and of being 
made the subjects of .the deepest reflection of the acutest 
mind. With reference to these noble endeavors, and the 
fact that law and justice must ever look for their original 
foundation, for their first starting point, to the immutable 
principles of morality. Lord Mansfield boldly called Soc- 
rates *'the great lawyer of antiquity."* 

Socrates taught for many years, at Athens, in the course 
)f which, he had naturally frequent occasion to attack or 
reprimand error, folly, or vice ; nor did he ever hesitate 
fearlessly to do so, wherever he met with them, whether it 
was in the powerful and renowned, or the humble and un- 
observed. This, together with the acute manner in which 
he diffused information, by drawing answers from his an- 

* IIOLLIDAY. p. 105. 



DEATH OP SOCRATES. 29 

fcagonist, and leading him, through his own assertions, tc 
the untenableness ot" his positions, and also his pure and 
reproachless life, created him many enemies. The vanity 
of the Sophists was humbled ; the pride of those in power 
irritated ; the jealousy of all excited, by the increasing 
number of those, who openly appeared as the followers of 
the Sage. If happened, as it will always happen, in such 
cases, when vanity, conscious vice, or arrogant ignorance, 
feel reproached and humbled, and the spotless life of him 
who humbles them affords not even a handle for slander. 
Violence is resorted to, in order to crush, where means are 
lacking to defeat. When intellectual victory cannot be 
hoped for, physical undoing must stand in place of it. 

Socrates had never taken a leading part in politics ; it 
would have interfered with his divine career : but he had 
always done his duty, as a good citizen. He had bravely 
fought for his country at Plataeae ; he had gone to vote, 
when called upon, as a simple citizen ; and had done so, 
conscientiously and boldly, as the reader will see from the 
sequel. In this point of view, he could not be attacked ; 
nor was there any definite crime, which could be laid to 
his charge, with any degree of plausibility. What wa^s 
more natural, than that his enemies should resort to relig- 
ious charges, and endeavor to rouse the fanaticism of the 
multitude ? He has taught other gods, than our State, by 
established religion, acknowledges ! He corrupts the 
youth, by giving them a distaste to what we have exact- 
ed ! He is a rebel ! The power-holders were toH they had 
been offended, and were called upon to ruin the offender ! 

If Socrates had led a spotless life, he showed in his 
death, such composure, unruffled serenity, and conscious- 
ness of purity, that, besides all the symjiathy, which its 
recital must awaken, in every heart, in which a spark of 
virtue is left, we feel amazed at the moral grandeur of this 
man, standing alone, and unsupported by religion, without 
any other reliance than that which his pure soul derived 
from virtue itself, for its own sake, its own purity. Socra- 
tes might have escaped his unjust death ; he was pressed 
to do so : but he would not disobey the laws of his country, 
now, when they weighed hard upon him, since he had en- 
joyed their protection so long, during life. He could not 
lighten the burden of death, by the joyous considerations of 
the Christian martyr, that even the bitterest end, endured 
for the profession of his Lord, is but a trifling return for the 
3# 



30 GREAT EVENTS. 

death which his Master has suffered for him. He could 
not cheer and calm his soul by a firm and clear conviction 
of an endless life of reward, for a finite time of suffering, 
however admirable his great mind may also appear, in this 
particular, that it elevated itself to a belief in the immor 
tality of the soul, and a purer deity. To the last breath 
of his untarnished life, he appears to us as the great hero 
of virtue. " Socrates," says a modern philosopher,* " is 
a classic masterpiece of virtue ;" so grand is the image, in 
its outlines, so perfect in its proportions. 

I shall be able to give but a very brief extract from those 
writings of Plato, in which the last moments of his master 
are described ; but it has ever appeared to me, that, as it 
is our bounden duty not to neglect the choicest treasures, 
which, in the toilsome course of civilization, may have 
been brought to light, those Dialogues of Plato ought to be 
read by every one, even if the works, for the perusal of 
which, a man in the practical pursuits of life may find time, 
be reduced to the very smallest number. They have the 
salutary power of exalting the reader's mind, and imparting 
a feeling of nobleness and purity to his soul. Translations 
have made them accessible to all. The Apology of Plato 
was read and re-read by Cicero ; who says, that he could 
never peruse it, without tears ; and, if the remarks just 
made were intended chiefly for the general reader, it is no 
less true, in my opinion, that the same writings should al- 
ways belong to those few, which the growing inner and 
outer experience of a man of reflection and literary ac- 
quirement has taught him to select, for a regular and pe- 
riodical reperusal. Some of these will always be selected, 
and ought to be so, with particular regard to the individu- 
ality of each man ; others are alike important for all ; and 
to these belong, I believe, ' Plato's Apology,' and the men- 
tioned Dialogues, entitled ' Criton and Phaedon.' 

The following is taken from the second volume of ' His- 
torical Parallels,' as offering as judicious a combination of 
extracts, as can be made for our purpose. 

After Socrates had continued to teach, at least twenty- 
four years, (for the date of the ' Clouds'f informs us, that 
he had obtained some notoriety before the year 423, B.C., 

* Hegel, a late German philosopher. 

t A comedy of Aristophanes, in which Socrates is ridiculed. 



DEATH OP SOCRATES. 31 

m which that comedy was acted,) a criminal accusation 
was brought against him, in 399, B. C, to the following 
effect : " Socrates does amiss, not recognising the gods 
which the State recognises, and introducing other new di- 
vine natures ; and he does amiss, in that he corrupts the 
young." The originator of the charge was an obscure 
person, named Melitus,* a poet, and a bad one ; but he 
was joined by Lycon, an orator, and Anytus, a man of 
wealth and consideration in Athens. The cause of that 
enmity, which led to this prosecution, is nowhere clearly 
explained. In the apology of Plato, Socrates says, that 
his three accusers attacked him, '^ Mehtus being my en- 
emy on account of the poets, but Anytus on account of 
the artificers and politicians, and Lycon on account of the 
orators." This passage would rather suggest the notion 
of private enmity, which is, in some degree, confirmed by 
another passage in the apology of Xenophon, where Soc- 
rates refers the dislike of Anytus, to a comment, made 
on his style of bringing up his son. The causes of hatred 
ascribed to Melitus and Lycon must be explained, — the 
one, by Socrates' avowed contempt for the fictions of po- 
ets ; the other, to his equally avowed abhorrence of that 
system of instruction practised by the Sophists ; of which 
one, and that the most popular branch, was the teaching 
oratory as an art, by which any person could be enabled 
to speak on any subject, however ignorant concerning the 
real merits of it. This desire to remove Socrates exist- 
ing, whatever its origin, it could not be gratified, without 
finding some plausible ground to go upon. Nothing could 
be objected to his actions ; as a soldier, he had distin- 
guished himself for bravery ; as a public officer, he had 
shown inflexible integrity, when the infamous vote was 
passed, for putting to death the generals who won the 
battle of Arginusse ; and, on another occasion, as a citi- 
zen, he had refused, when ordered to apprehend Leon of 
Salamis,* at the hazard of life, to perform an act contrary 
to the laws. The real or alleged character of his philos- 

* Sehleiermacher reads, Meletus. 
t Mitford, chap. xxxi. 2. 



32 GREAT EVENTS. 

ophy and teaching, then, was the only handle against him. 
It was difficult to find just ground of complaint against it. 
But to invent false charges is never difficult ; and those 
which came readiest to hand were the same, to a certain 
extent, as Aristophanes, in ignorance or wantonness, had 
long before brought against him. " What," he says in 
the ' Apology,' '' do my accusers say ? It is this, ' Soc- 
rates acts wickedly, and, with criminal curiosity, investi- 
gates things under the earth, and in the heavens. He 
also makes the worse to be the better argument, and he 
teaches these things to others.' Such is the accusation ; 
for things of this kind, you also have yourselves seen in 
the comedy of Aristophanes ; for there, one Socrates is 
carried about, who affirms, that he walks upon the air, 
and idly asserts many other trifles of this nature ; of which 
things, however, I neither know much, nor little." If 
we are to take this, literally, it involves the charge of not 
believing in any gods at all, for such is the character of 
Socrates, as given in the ' Clouds ;' a charge, the falsity 
of which is amply proved, both by Xenophon and Plato, 
in their respective ' Apologies'. The charge of introduc- 
ing new deities refers to the demon, or divine nature, by 
which Socrates professed to be guided in his conduct ^ 
from a child, and which manifested itself, by an internal 
voice ; which never suggested any thing, but very fre- 
quently warned him from that which he was about to do. 
False, however, as the charge against him was, in all res- 
pects, Socrates appears to have felt that his condemnation 
was certain, and to have taken no pains, either to avert 
it, or to escape. The orator Lysias is said to have com- 
posed a labored speech, which he offered to the philoso- 
pher, to be used as his defence ; but he declined it. His 
trial came on before the court of Helisea, the most nu- 
merous tribunal in Athens, in which a body of judges sat, 
fluctuating in number, but usually consisting of several 
hundreds, chosen, by lot, from among the body of the cit- 
izens. It was not, therefore, to a bench of judges, such 
as we are used to see them, bred to the law, and pre- 
sumed, at least, to be dispassionate and unprejudiced, 
but to a popular assembly, that he had to plead. Never- 



DEATH OF SOCRATES. 33 

theless, he abstained, studiously, from every means of 
working on the passions, even to the usual method of sup- 
plication and moving pity, by the introduction of his 
weeping family. Such appeals, he thought unbecoming 
his own character, or the gravity of a court of justice, in 
which, the question of the guilt or innocence of a prison- 
er ought, alone, to be regarded. Judgement, as he ex- 
pected, was pronounced against him, though only by a 
majority of three. By the Athenian law, the guilt of an 
accused person being affirmed by the judges, a second 
question arose, concerning the amount of his punishment. 
The accuser, in his charge, stated the penalty which he 
proposed to inflict ; the prisoner had the privilege of 
speaking in mitigation of judgement, and naming that 
which he considered adequate to the offence. Socrates, 
at this stage of his trial, still preserved the same high tone. 
If, he said, I am to estimate my own punishment, it must 
be according to my merits ; and, as these are great, I de- 
serve that reward which is suited to a poor man, who has 
been your benefactor, namely, a public maintenance in 
the Prytaneium.* Death, he said, he did not fear, not 
knowing whether it were a change for the better or the 
worse. Imprisonment and exile, he esteemed worse thai? 
death ; and, being persuaded of his own innocence, he 
would never be party to a sentence of evil on himself. 
To a fine, if he had money to pay it, he had no objec- 
tion, since the loss of the money would leave him no worse 
off than before ; and, as he was able to pay a mina of 
silver, (about twenty dollars,) he would assess his pun- 
ishment at that sum : or, rather, at thirty minse, as Plato, 
and three other of his disciples, expressed a wish to be- 
come his sureties to that amount. 

This was not a line of conduct likely to excite pity, 
and sentence of death was passed, by a larger majority 
than before. He again addressed a short speech to his 
judges, in which he tells them, that, for the sake of cut- 
ting off a little from his life, already verging on the grave, 



* This public maintenance was esteemed one of the highest honors 
that the State could confer. 



34 GREAT EVENTS. 

they had incarred and brought on the city a lasting re- 
proach, and that he might have escaped, if he would have 
condescended to use supplications and lamentations. Of 
his mode of defence, however, he repented not, seeing 
that he would rather die, having so spoken, than live by 
the use of unworthy methods ; and that to escape death 
was far less difficult, than to avoid baseness. He conclu- 
ded, by an address to the judges, who had voted for his 
acquittal, stating the grounds of his hopes that death would 
be a change for the better ; the first of which is, that the 
demon had never opposed or checked his intended line 
of conduct, during the whole of these proceedings, nor, 
in his speeches had it ever stopped him from saying any 
thing that he meant to say, as it was used often to do, in 
conversation : from which he inferred, that his invisible 
guide had approved of all that he did, and that, therefore, 
a good thing was about to happen to him. Death, he 
said, was either insensibility, or a migration of the soul : 
in the former case, as compared with life, he esteemed 
it a change for the better ; in the latter, if the general be- 
lief was true, what greater good could there be, than to 
meet and enjoy the society of the great men of antiquity. 
Urging, therefore, these just judges to look confidently 
towards death, and to believe that, to a good man, dead 
or alive, no real harm can happen, he concludes, — " It is 
time that we should depart, I to die, you to live ; but 
which of us to the better thing, is known to the Divinity, 
alone." 

Death usually followed close upon condemnation ; but 
the death of Socrates was delayed, by an Athenian usage, 
of great antiquity, said to have been instituted in com- 
memoration of the dehverance of Attica, by Theseus, 
from the tyranny of Minos. Every year, the sacred ship, 
in which Theseus had sailed to Crete, was despatched, 
with offerings, to the sacred island of Delos ; and, in the 
interim between its departure and return, no criminals 
were ever put to death. Socrates was condemned, the 
evening before its departure, and, consequently, he was 
respited until its return, — a period of thirty days. Dur- 
ng this time, his friends bad access to hm ; and the Di* 



DEATH OP SOCRATES. 35 

alogues of Plato, entitled ' Criton and Phaedon,' purport to 
be the substance of conversations, held by him, towards 
the close of this time. If he had been willing to escape, 
the gaoler was bribed, and the means of escape prepared ; 
but this was a breach of the laws, which he refused to 
countenance ; and he still thought, as he had said in his 
speech, exile to be worse than death. On the last day 
of his life, when his friends were admitted at sunrise, they 
found him with his wife and one child. These were soon 
dismissed, lest their lamentations should disturb his last 
interview with his friends and pupils : and he commenced 
a conversation, which speedily turned on the immortahty 
of the soul, the arguments for w^hich, as they could best 
be developed by one of the acutest of human intellects, 
are summed up in that celebrated Dialogue, the 'Phaedon,' 
which professes to relate all the events of this Inst day of 
the philosopher's hfe. It concludes as follows : 

" When he had thus spoken, ' Be it so, Socrates,' 
said Criton ; ' but what orders do you leave to these who 
are present, or to myself, either respecting your children, 
or any thing else, in the execution of which we should 
most gratify you ?^ ' What I always do say, Criton, (he 
replied,) nothing new ; that, if you pay due attention to 
yourselves, do what you will, you will always do what is 
acceptable to myself, to my family, and to your own selves, 
though you should not now promise me any thing. But 
if you neglect yourselves, and are unwilling to live, fol- 
lowing the track, as it were, of what I have said, both now 
and heretofore, you will do nothing the more, though you 
should now promise many things, and that with earnest- 
ness.' ' We shall take care, therefore,' said Criton, ' so 
to act. But how would you be buried .^' ' Just as you 
please, (said he,) if you can but catch me, and I do not 
elude your pursuit.' And, at the same time, gently laugh- 
ing, and addressing himself to us, ' I cannot persuade 
Criton,' he said, 'my friends, that I am that Socrates who 
now disputes with you, and methodizes every part of the 
discourse : but he thinks that I am he whom he will short- 
ly behold dead, and asks how I ought to be buried. But 
all that long discotlrse, which, some time since, I address- 



36 GREAT EVENTS. 

ed to you, in which I asserted, that, after I had drunk 
the poison, I should no longer remain with you, but should 
depart to certain felicities of the blessed, this I seem to 
have declared to him in vain, though it was undertaken to 
console both you and myself. Be surety, therefore, 
for me, to Criton, to the reverse of that, for which he be- 
came surety for me to the judges ; for he was my bail 
that I should remain ; but be you my bail that I shall not 
remain, when I die, but shall depart hence, that Criton 
may bear it the more easily, and may not be afflicted, when 
he sees my body burnt or buried, as if I were suffering 
some dreadful misfortune ; and that he may not say, at 
my interment, that Socrates is laid out, or carried out, or 
is buried. For, be well assured of this, my friend Criton, 
that, when we speak amiss, we are not only blamable as 
to our expressions, but likewise do some evil to our souls. 
But it is fit to be of good heart, and to say, that my body 
will be buried, and to bury it in such manner as may be 
most pleasing to yourself, and as you may esteem it most 
agreeable to our laws.' 

" When he had thus spoken, he arose, and went into 
another room, that he might wash himself, and Criton fol- 
lowed him ; but he ordered us to wait for him. We 
waited, therefore, accordingly, discoursing over, and re- 
viewing, among ourselves, what had been said ; and some- 
times speaking about his death, how great a calamity it 
would be to us ; and sincerely thinking, that we, like those 
who are deprived of their fathers, should pass the rest of 
our life in the condition of orphans. But, when he had 
washed himself, his sons were brought to him, (for he had 
two little ones, and one older,) and the women belonging 
to his family likewise came in to him : but, when he had 
spoken to them before Criton, and had left them such in- 
junctions as he thought proper, he ordered the boys and 
women to depart, and he himself returned to us. And it 
was now near the setting of the sun ; for he had been away, 
in the inner room, for a long time. But, when he came in 
from bathing, he sat down, and did not speak much, after- 
wards ; for then the servant of the Eleven* came in, and, 

♦Athenian magistrates, who had the charge of executing criminals. 



DEATH OP SOCRATES. 37 

standmg near him, ' I do not perceive that in you, Soc- 
rates,' said he, ' which I have taken notice of in others ; 
I mean, that they are angry with me, and curse me, when, 
being compelled by the magistrates, 1 announce to them 
that they must drink the poison. But, on the contrary, I 
have found you, to the present time, to be the most gener- 
ous, mild, and best, of all the men that ever came into this 
place ; and, therefore, I am well convinced, that you are 
not angry with me, but with the authors of your present 
condition, for you know who they are. Now, therefore, 
(for you know what I came to tell you,) farewell ; and 
endeavor to bear this necessity as easily as possible.' 
And, at the same time, bursting into tears, and turning 
himself away, he departed. But Socrates, looking after 
him, said, ' And thou, too, farewell ; and we shall take 
care to act as you advise.' And, at the same time, turn- 
ing to us, ' How courteous,' he said, ' is the behavior 
of that man ! During the whole time of my abode here, 
he has visited me, and often conversed with me, and 
proved himself to be the best of men ; and now, how gen- 
erously he weeps on my account ! But let us obey him, 
Criton, and let some one bring the poison, if it is bruised ; 
and if not, let the man, whose business it is, bruise it.' 
' But, Socrates,' said Criton, ' I think that the sun still 
hangs over the mountains, and is not set yet. And, at the 
same time, I have known others, who have drunk the 
poison very late, after it was announced to them ; who 
have supped and drank abundantly. Therefore, do not 
be in such haste, for there is yet time enough.' Socra- 
tes replied, ' Such men, Criton, act fitly in the manner 
which you have described, for they think to derive some 
advantage by so doing ; and I, also, with propriety, shall 
not act in this manner. For I do not think I shall gain 
any thing, by drinking it later, except becoming ridiculous 
to myself, through desiring to live, and being sparing of. 
life, when nothing of it any longer remains. Go, there- 
fore,' said he, 'be persuaded, and comply with my re- 
quest.' 

" Then Criton, hearing this, gave a sign to the boy that 
stood near him ; and the boy departing, and having staid 

4 G. E. 



38 GREAT EVENTS. 

for some time, came back with the person that was toad- 
minister the poison, who brought it, pounded in a cup. 
And Socrates, looking at the man, said, ' Well, my 
friend, (for you are knowing in these matters,) what is to 
be done .'*' ' Nothing,' he said, ' but, after you have drunk 
it, to walk about, until a heaviness takes place in your 
legs, and then to lie down : this is the manner in which 
you have to act.' And, at the same time, he extended 
the cup to Socrates. And Socrates, taking it, and, indeed, 
Echecrates, with great cheerfulness, neither trembling, 
nor suffering any change for the worse in his color or 
countenance, but, as he was used to do, looking up stern- 
ly at the man — 'What say you,' he said, 'as to mak- 
ing a libation from this potion ? may I do it or not P 
'We only bruise as much, Socrates,' he said, 'as we 
think sufficient for the purpose.' 'I understand you,' 
he said ; ' but it is both lawful and proper to pray to the 
gods, that my departure hence, thither, may be prosper- 
ous ; which I entreat them to grant may be the case.' 
And, so saying, he stopped, and drank the poison very 
readily and pleasantly. And thus far, indeed, the greater 
part of us were tolerably well able to refrain from weep- 
ing ; but, when we saw him drinking, and that he had 
drunk it, we could no longer restrain our tears. And 
from me, indeed, in spite of my efforts, they flowed, and 
not drop by drop ; so that, wrapping myself in my man- 
tle, I bewailed myself, not, indeed, for his misfortune, but 
for my own, considering what a companion I should be 
deprived of. But Criton, who was not able to restrain 
his tears, was compelled to rise before me. And Apol- 
lodorus, who, during the whole time prior to this, had not 
ceased from weeping, then wept aloud, with great bitter- 
ness, so that he infected all who were present, except 
Socrates. But Socrates, upon seeing this, exclaimed, 
' What are you doing, you strange men ! In truth, I prin- 
cipally sent away the women, lest they should produce a 
disturbance of this kind ; for I have heard, that it is proper 
to die among well-omened sounds. Be quiet, therefore, 
and maintain your fortitude.' And when we heard this, 
we were ashamed, and restrained our tears. But he, 



DEATH OF SOCRATES. 39 

when he found, during his walking about, that his legs be- 
came heavy, and had told us so, laid himself down on his 
back. For the man had told him to do so. And, at the 
same time, he who gave him the poison, touching him at in- 
tervals, examined his feet and legs. And then, pressing 
very hard on his foot, he asked him if he felt it. But 
Socrates answered, that he did not. And, after this, he 
pressed his thighs, and thus, going upwards, he showed 
us that he was cold and stiff. And Socrates also touched 
himself, and said, that when the poison reached his heart, 
he should then depart. But now, the lower part of his 
body was almost cold ; when, uncovering himself, (for 
he was covered,) he said, (and these were his last words,) 
' Criton, we owe a cock to iEsculapius. Discharge this 
debt, therefore, for me, and do not neglect it.' ' It shall 
be done,' said Criton ; ' but consider, whether you have 
any other commands.' To this inquiry of Criton, he 
made no reply ; but, shortly after, moved himself, and the 
man uncovered him. And Socrates fixed his eyes ; 
which, when Criton perceived, he closed his mouth and 
eyes. This, Echecrates, was the end of our compan- 
ion ; a man, as it appears to me, the best of those whom 
we were acquainted with at that time, and, besides this, 
the most prudent and just."* 

* Taylor's translation of Plato. Some slight alterations have been 
made, where the translator seemed to have gone unnecessarily far from 
the language of the original. — JVote of the English author. 



40 GREAT EVENTS. 



THE SURRENDER OF THE ROMAN ARMY, AT 
THE DEFILE NEAR CAUDIUM, B. C. 319. 

BY Livy. 

The three most prominent early Italian nations were 
the Etruscans, the Latins, and the people of Samnium. 
The last-named country consisted of a mountain tract, in 
the southeastern part of central Italy, and its inhabitants 
were renowned for their frugality, industry, and bravery. 
All of them cultivated the soil ; and the institution of an 
agricultural priesthood, (fratres arvales,*) was borrowed 
by the Romans from the Samnites, They, like the Latins 
and Tuscans, formed a league, or confederacy, of several 
communities, otherwise independent. The Romans, at an 
early period, came in contact with these warlike mountain- 
eers. The Samnites had attacked Capua, the wealthy cap- 
ital of Campania ; and, when the inhabitants of this city 
saw that they were not strong enough to defend it, they 
offered themselves as subjects to the republic of Rome, so 
that Rome should feel obliged to defend Capua, as its own. 
The Romans accepted the offer, and were successful in the 
ensuing war against the Samnites. Peace was concluded ; 
but, after it had subsisted for some time, war was renewed, 
and lasted many years. During its continuance, the Ro- 
man legions were made prisoners by the Samnites, who 
granted them permission to depart, upon very humiliating 
conditions. It is the description of this part of the war 
which has been selected as an extract from Livy, in whose 
history it is found, at the beginning of the Ninth Book. 
A few brief remarks respecting Livy will be found, preced- 
ing the next article. 

* The order of priests who went in procession through the fields, 
and prayed for the increase of corn, at the festival called Ambarvalia, 
when the fields were dedicated and blessed. Those priests were 
twelve in number, and the order is said to have been instituted by 
Romulus, in honor of his nurse, Acca Laurentia, who had twelve sons, 
and when one. of them died, Romulus, to console her, offered to sup- 
ply his place, and called himself and the rest of her sons fratres ar 
vales. — I. 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 41 

The year, following, [A. U. C. 433, B. C. 319,] was 
distinguished by the convention of Caudiuni, so memora- 
ble, on account of the misfortune of the Romans. The 
consuls of the year were Titus Veturius Calvinus and 
Spurius Postumius. 

The Samnites were that year commanded by Caius 
Pontius, son to Herennius, born of a father most highly 
renowned for wisdom, and himself a consummate warrior 
and commander. When the ambassadors,* who had 
been sent to offer restitution, returned, without conclud- 
ing a peace, he said, in an assembly : 

" That you may not think that no purpose has been 
effected by this embassy, be assured, that, whatever de- 
gree of anger the deities of heaven had conceived against 
us, on account of the infraction of the treaty, has been 
hereby expiated. I am very confident, that, whatever 
deities they were, whose will it was that you should be 
reduced to the necessity of making restitution, it was not 
agreeable to them, that our atonement for the breach of 
treaty should be so haughtily spurned by the Romans : 
for, what more could possibly be done, towards appeas- 
ing the gods and softening the anger of man, than we 
have done .'' The effects of the enemy, taken among 
the spoils, which appeared to be our own, by the right 
of war, we restored ; the authors of the war, as we could 
not deliver them up, alive, we delivered to them, dead ; 
their goods we carried to Rome, lest, by retaining them, 
any degree of guilt should remain among us. What more^^ 
Roman, do I owe to thee ? what, to the treaty f what, to 
the gods, the guarantees of the treaty ? What umpire 
shall I call in, to judge of your resentment, and of my 
punishment } I decline none ; neither nation nor private 
persons. 

" But, if the weak is not to find protection against a 
stronger, in human laws, I will appeal to the gods, the 
avengers of intolerable arrogance, and will beseech them, 
to turn their wrath against those, who are not satisfied by 
the restoration of their own, nor by additional heaps of 

* That is, the Samnite ambassadors. 

4# 



42 GREAT EVENTS. 

Other men's property ; whose inhuman rage is^-not satiated 
by the death of the guilty, by the surrender of their hfeless 
bodies, and by their goods, accompanying the surrender 
of the owner ; who cannot be appeased, otherwise than 
by giving them our blood to drink, and our entrails to be 
torn. 

" Samnites ! war is just, when it becomes necessary ; 
and arms are clear of impiety, when men have no hope 
left but in arms. Wherefore, as the issue of every hu- 
man undertaking depends, chiefly, on men's acting ei- 
ther with or without the favor of the gods, be assured, 
that the former wars you waged in opposition to the gods, 
more than to men ; in this, which we are now to under- 
take, you will act under the immediate guidance of the 
gods themselves." 

After uttering these predictions, not more favorable than 
true, he led out the troops, and placed his camp about 
Caudium, as much out of view, as possible. Thence, he 
sent to Calatia, where he heard that the Roman consuls 
were encamped, ten soldiers, in the habit of shepherds, 
and ordered them to keep some cattle feeding, in several 
different places, at a small distance from the Roman 
posts ; and that, when they fell in with any of their for- 
agers, they should all agree in the same story, that the 
legions of th^ Samnites were then in ApuHa, besieging 
Luceria, with their whole force, and very near becoming 
masters of it. Such a rumor had been industriously 
spread, before, and had already reached the Romans ; 
but these prisoners caused them to give it greater credit, 
especially, as they all concurred in the same report. The 
Romans did not hesitate to resolve on carrying succor 
to the Lucernians, because they were good and faithful 
allies ; and for this further reason, lest all Apulia, through 
apprehension of the impending danger, might go over to 
the enemy. 

The only point which came under deliberation was, 
by what road they should go. There were two roads 
leading to Luceria, one along the coast of the upper 
sea, wide and open ; but, as it was the safer, so it was 
proportionably longer : the other, which was shorter. 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 43 

through the Caudine forks. The nature of the place is 
'his : there are two deep glens, narrow, and covered with 
*vood, connected together by mountains, ranging on both 
sides, from one to the other : between these, lies a plain, 
)f considerable extent, abounding in grass and water, 
;hrough the middle of which the passage runs ; but, be- 
fore this is arrived at, the first defile must be passed, 
while the only way back is through the road by which it 
^vas entered ; or, in case of resolving to proceed forward, 
;t must be by the other glen, which is still more narrow 
md difficult. 

Into this plain, the Romans marched down their troops, 
by one of those passes through the cleft of a rock ; 
and, when they advanced to the other defile, found it 
blocked up, by trees thrown across, with a mound of 
huge stones. The stratagem of the enemy now became 
ipparent ; and, at the same time, a body of troops was 
^een on the eminence, over the glen. Hastening back, 
(hen, to the road by which they had entered, they found 
diat also shut up, by such another fence and men in 
arms. Then, without orders, they halted ; amazement 
took possession of their minds, and a strange kind of 
numbness, their limbs. They then remained, a long 
time, motionless and silent, with their eyes fixed on each 
other, as if each thought the other more capable of judg- 
ing and advising, than himself. After some time, the 
consul's pavilions were erected, and they got ready the 
implements for throwing up works, although they were 
sensible that it must appear ridiculous, to attempt to raise 
a fortification in their present desperate condition, and 
when almost every hope was lost. Yet, not to add a 
fault to their misfortunes, they all, without being advised 
or ordered by any one, set earnestly to work, and enclos- 
ed a camp with a rampart, close to the water, while 
themselves, besides enduring the haughty taunts of their 
enemies, seemed with melancholy to acknowledge the 
apparent fruitlessness of their labor. The lieutenant- 
generals and tribunes, without being summoned to con- 
sultation, (for there was no room for either consultation 
or remedy,) assembled round the dejected consul ; while 



44 GREAT EVENTS- 



the soldiers, crowding to the general's quarters, demand 
ed from their leaders that succor, which it was hardly i 
the power of the immortal gods, themselves, to affor. 
them. 

Night came on, while they were employed m lament 
ing their situation, all urging, with warmth, whatever thei 
several tempers prompted. Some crying out, "Let u 
go over those fences, which obstruct the roads ;" others 
" over the steeps ; through the woods ; any way, wher( 
arms can be carried. Let us be but permitted to com« 
to the enemy, whom we have been used to conquer, now 
near thirty years. All places will be level and plaii 
to a Roman, fighting against the perfidious Samnite.' 
Another would say, " Whither, or by what way, can w( 
go ^ Do we expect to remove the mountains fron 
their foundations ? While these cliffs hang over us. 
how can we proceed ? Whether armed or unarmed, 
brave or dastardly, we are all, without distinction, cap- 
tured and vanquished. The enemy will not even show 
us a weapon, by which we might die, with honor. He 
will finish the war, without moving from his seat." In 
such discourse, thinking of neither food nor rest, they 
passed the whole night. 

Nor could the Samnites, though in circumstances so 
accordant to their wishes, instantly determine how to 
act : it was therefore universally agreed, that Herennius 
Pontius, father of the general, should be consulted, by 
letter. He was now grown feeble, through age, and 
had withdrawn himself, not only from all military, but 
also from all civil, occupations ; yet, notwithstanding the 
decline of his bodily strength, his mind retained its full 
vigor. When he was informed that the Roman armies 
were shut up at the Caudine forks, between the two 
glens, and was asked for advice, by his son's messenger, 
he gave his opinion, that they should all be immediately 
dismissed thence, unhurt. On this counsel being reject- 
ed, and the same messenger returning, to advise with 
him, a second time, he recommended that they should 
all, to a man, be put to death. On receiving these an- 
swers, so opposite to each other, hke the ambiguous re- 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 45 

ponses of an oracle, his son, although, as well as olh- 
rs, persuaded that the powers of his father's mind, to- 
ether with those of his body, had been impaired by age, 
.^as yet prevailed on, by the general desire of all, to send 
3r him and consult him in person. 

The old man, we are told, complied, without reluc- 
mce, and was carried in a wagon to the camp, where, 
7hen he came to speak, he made no alteration in the opin- 
)ns which he had given : he only added the reasons on 
rhich he founded them : That, "by his first plan, which 
e esteemed the best, he meant, by an act of extraordinary 
indness, to establish perpetual peace and friendship with a 
lost powerful nation ; by the other, to put off the return 
f war, to the distance of many ages, during which, the 
Loman state, after the loss of those two armies, could not 
asily recover its strength. A third plan there was not." 
lis son, and the other chiefs, then asking him if " a plan 
fa middle kind might not be adopted, — of dismissing 
lem, unhurt ; and, at the same time, by the right of war, 
nposing terms on them, as vanquished .^" — " That, in- 
(eed," said he, '' is a plan of such a nature, as neither 
•rocures friends nor removes enemies. Only consider 
;^ho they are, whom you would irritate by ignominious 
reatment. The Romans are a race who know not how 
D sit down quiet, under defeat ; any scar, which the 
iresent necessity shall imprint in their breasts, will ran- 
le there, for ever, and will not suffer them to rest, until 
bey have wreaked manifold vengeance on your heads." 
Neither of these plans was approved, and Herennius was 
arried home. 

In the other camp, the Romans, having made many 
:uitless efforts to force a passage, and being now desti- 
jte of every means of subsistence, were reduced, by 
ecessity, to send ambassadors, who were, first, to ask 
eace, on equal terms ; which, if they did not obtain, 
ley were to challenge the enemy to batde. To this, 
^ontius answered, ''that the war was at an end; and 
ince, even in their present vanquished and captive state, 
bey were not willing to make acknowledgement of their 
ituation, he would send them under the yoke, unarmed, 



46 GREAT EVENTS. 

and only partly clothed : that the other conditions of 
peace should be such as were just and proper, betvveet 
the conquerors and the conquered. Their troops musi 
depart, and their colonies be withdrawn, out of the terri- 
tories of the Samnites ; and, for the future, the Romans 
and Samnites, under a treaty of equality, shall live ac- 
cording to their own respective laws. On these terms, 
he was ready to negotiate with the consuls ; and, if any 
of these should not be accepted, he forbade the ambas- 
sadors to come to him, again.'' 

When the result of this embassy was made known, 
such general lamentation suddenly arose, and such mel- 
ancholy took possession of every mind, that, had they 
been told that all were to die on the spot, they could noi 
have felt deeper affliction. Silence continued a long 
time, the consuls not being able to utter a word, either ir 
favor of a treaty so disgraceful, or against a treaty so 
necessary. 

At length, Lucius Lentulus, who was the first among the 
lieutenant-generals, both in respect of bravery and of the 
public honors which he had attained, addressed them, thus: 
" Consuls, I have often heard my father say, that he was 
the only person in the capitol who did not advise the senate 
to ransom the state from the Gauls, with gold : and this 
he would not concur in, because they had not been en- 
closed with a trench and rampart, by the enemy, (who 
were remarkably slothful, with respect to works and rais- 
ing fortifications,) and because they might sally forth, if 
not without great danger, yet without certain destruction. 
Now, if, in like manner, as they had it in their power to 
run down from the capitol, in arms, against their foe, as 
men besieged have often salHed out on their besiegers, it 
were possible for us to come to blows, either on equal 
or unequal ground, the advice which I should give would 
not be devoid of the same spirit which animated my 
father. 

" I acknowledge, indeed, that death, in defence of our 
country, is highly glorious ; and I am ready, either to 
devote myself for the Roman people and the legions, 
or to plunge into the midst of the enemy. But, in this 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 47 

spot, I behold my country ; in this spot, the whole of 
the Roman legions ; and, unless these choose to rush on 
death, for their own gratification, what is there which can 
be preserved by their death ? The houses of the city, 
some may say, and the walls of it, and the crowd who 
dwell in it. But, in fact, in case of the destruction of 
this army, all these are given up to ruin, instead of being 
saved from it : for who will protect them ? An unwar- 
like and unarmed multitude, shall I suppose ? Yes ; 
just as they defended them against the attack of the 
Gauls. Will they call to their succor an army from 
Veii, with Camillus at its head ? Here, on the spot, I 
repeat, are all our hopes and strength ; by preserving 
which, w^e preserve our country ; by delivering them up 
to death, we abandon and betray it. But a surrender is 
shameful and ignominious. True : but such ought to be 
our affection for our country, that we should save it, by 
our own disgrace, if necessity required, as freely as by 
our death. Let us therefore undergo that indignity, how 
great soever, and submit to that necessity, to which even 
the gods, themselves, are seen to yield. Go, consuls ; 
ransom the state for arms, which your ancestors ransom- 
ed with gold." 

The consuls accordingly went to Pontius, to confer 
with him ; and, when he talked, in the strain of a con- 
queror, of a treaty, they declared that such could not be 
concluded, without an order of the people, nor without 
the ministry of the heralds, and the other customary rites. 
So that the Caudine peace was not ratified by settled 
treaty, as is commonly believed, and even asserted by 
Claudius, in his history, but by convention, wherein the 
parties became sureties. For what occasion would there 
be, either for sureties or hostages, in the former case, 
where the ratification is performed by the imprecation, 
"that, whichever nation shall give occasion to the said 
terms being violated, may Jupiter strike that nation, in 
like manner as the swine is struck by the heralds." 
The consuls, lieutenant-generals, quaestors, and military 
tribunes, became sureties ; and the names of all these are 
extant in the convention ; where, had the business been 



48 GREAT EVENTS. 

transacted by treaty, none would have appeared, but those 
of the two heralds. 

On account of the necessary delay, before a peace 
could be concluded, it was also insisted on, that six 
hundred horsemen should be given, as hostages, who 
were to suffer death, if the compact were not fulfilled. 
A time was then fixed for delivering up the hostages, and 
sending away the troops, disarmed. The return of the 
consuls renewed the general grief, in the camp ; inso- 
much, that the men hardly refrained from offering vio- 
lence to them ; *' by whose rashness," they said, " they 
had been brought into such a situation ; and through 
whose cowardice they were likely to depart, with greater 
disgrace than they came. They had employed no guide 
who knew the country, nor scouts to explore it ; but 
went on, blindly, like beasts into a pitfall." They cast 
looks of distraction on each other ; viewed, earnestly, the 
arms which they must presently surrender ; while their 
persons would be subject to the will of the enemy ; fig- 
ured to themselves the hostile yoke, the scoffs of the 
conquerors, their haughty looks, and, finally, thus dis- 
armed, their march through the midst of an armed foe. 
In a word, they saw, with horror, the miserable journey 
of their dishonored band, through the cities of the allies ; 
and their return into their own country, to their parents, 
whither themselves and their ancestors had so often come, 
in triumph: observing, that "they, alone, had been 
conquered without a fight, without a weapon thrown, 
without a wound ; that they had not been permitted to 
draw their swords against the enemy. In vain had 
arms, in vain had strength, in vain had courage, been 
given them." 

While they were giving vent to such grievous reflec- 
tions, the fatal hour of their disgrace arrived, which was to 
render every circumstance still more shocking, in fact, than 
they had preconceived it, in their imaginations. First, 
they were ordered to go out, beyond the rampart, un- 
armed, and with single garments ; then the hostages were 
surrendered, and carried into custody : the lictors were 
next commanded to depart from the consuls, and the 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NeTaR CAUDIUM. 49 

robes of the latter were stripped off. This excited such 
a degree of commiseration, in the breasts of those very 
men, who, a httle before, were pouring execrations on 
them, that every one, forgetting his own condition, turned 
away his eyes from that disgraceful insult on so high a 
dignity, as from a spectacle too horrid to behold. 

First, the consuls, nearly half naked, were sent under 
the yoke ; then, each officer, according to his rank, was 
exposed to disgrace ; and the same of the legions, suc- 
cessively. The enemy stood on each side, under arms, 
reviling and mocking them ; swords were pointed at most 
of them ; several were wounded, and some even slaim, 
when their looks, rendered too fierce by the indignity to 
which they were subjected, gave offence to the conquer- 
ors. Thus, they were led under the yoke ; and, what 
was still more intolerable, under the eyes of the enemy. 

When they were clear of the defile, they seemed as 
if they had been drawn up from the infernal regions, and 
then, for the first time, beheld the light ; yet, when they 
viewed the ignominious appearance, to which the army 
was reduced, the light itself was more painful to them, 
than any kind of death could have been ; so* that, although 
they might have arrived at Capua, before night, yet, doubt- 
ing the fidelity of the allies, and embarrassed by shame, 
they halted at a small distance from that city. They 
stood in need of every kind of refreshment, yet threw 
themselves carelessly on the ground, on each side of the 
road ; which, being told at Capua, compassion for the 
situation of their allies took place of the arrogance natural 
to the Campanians. They immediately sent to the con- 
suls their ensigns of office, the fasces and lictors ; to the 
soldiers, arms, horses, clothes, and provisions, in abun- 
dance ; and, on their approach,, the whole senate and 
people went out to meet them, and performed every prop- 
er office of hospitality, both public and private. But the 
looks and address of the allies, joined with all their kind- 
ness, could not draw a word from them, nor even pre- 
vail on them to raise their eyes. So deeply were they 
affected, by shame and grief, that they shunned the con- 
versation of these, their friends. 



50 * GREAT EVENTS. 

Next day, when some young nobles, who had been 
sent from Capua, to escort them on their road to the 
frontiers of Campania, returned, they were called into 
the senate-house, and, in answer to the inquiries of the 
elder members, said, that "to them they seemed deep- 
ly sunk in melancholy and dejection ; that the whole 
body moved on, in silence, almost as if they were dumb ; 
that the former genius of the Romans was struck mute ; 
and their spirit had been taken from them, together with 
their arms. Not one gave answer to those who saluted 
them ; as if, through fear, they were unable to utter a 
word ; and as if their necks still carried the yoke under 
which they had been sent. That the Samnites had ob- 
tained a victory, not only glorious but lasting ; for they 
had subdued, not Rome, merely, as the Gauls had form- 
erly done, but, what was a much more warlike achieve- 
ment, the Roman courage.^' These discourses were 
attentively listened to, and lamentations made, in this 
assembly of faithful allies, as if the Roman name were 
almost extinct. 

We are told that Ofilius Calavius, son of Ovius, a man 
highly distinguished, both by his birth and conduct, and at 
this time further respectable, on account of his age, de- 
clared, that he entertained a very different opinion in 
the case. " This obstinate silence," said he ; " those 
ears, deaf to all comfort ; those eyes, fixed on the earth, 
with the shame of beholding the light ; are indications of 
a mind calling forth, from its inmost recesses, the utmost 
exertions of resentment. Either he was ignorant of the 
temper of the Romans, or that silence would shortly ex- 
cite, among the Samnites, lamentable cries and groans ; 
for that the remembrance of the Caudine peace would be 
much more sorrowful to the Samnites than to the Ro- 
mans. Each side would have their own native spirit, 
wherever they should happen to engage ; but the Sam- 
nites would not, every where, have the glens of Cau- 
dium." 

People at Rome were, by this time, informed of the 
disaster which had befallen them. At first, they heard 
that the troops were shut up ; afterward, the news of the 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 51 

ignominious peace arrived ; and this caused greater afflic- 
tion than had been felt for their danger. On the report 
of their being surrounded, a levy of men was begun ; but, 
when it was understood that the army had surrendered, 
in so disgraceful a manner, the preparations were laid 
aside, and immediately, without any public directions, a 
general mourning took place, with all various demonstra- 
tions of grief. The shops were shut ; and all busijiess 
ceased in the forum, by common consent, without any 
order for that purpose being issued. Ornamented dress- 
es* were laid aside ; and the public were in greater 
tribulation, if possible, than the vanquished, themselves ; 
they were not only enraged against the commanders, 
the advisers and sureties of the peace, but were filled 
with detestation even of the unoffending soldiers, and 
asserted, that they ought not to be admitted into the 
city. 

But these transports of passion were allayed by the ar- 
rival of the troops, in a state so deplorable, as was suffi- 
cient to convert even anger into compassion ; for they came 
into the city, not like men returning into their country, with 
unexpected safety, but in the habit and with the looks of 
captives, late in the evening ; and they hid themselves, 
so closely, in their houses, that, for the next and several, 
following days, not one of them could bear to come in 
sight of the forum or of the public. The consuls, shut 
up in private, transacted no official business, except that 
they were compelled, by a decree of the senate, to nom- 
inate a dictator to preside at the elections. They nomi- 
nated Quintus Fabius Ambustus ; and, as master of the 
horse, Publius jElius Paetus. But some irregularity be- 
ing discovered in their appointment, there was substituted, 
in their room, Marcus ^Emilus Papus, dictator, and Lu- 
cius Valerius Flaccus, master of the horse. But neither 
did these hold the election : and the people being dissat- 

* In the original, lati clavi. The latus clavus v/as a tunic, or vest, 
ornamented with a broad stripe of purple on the forepart, worn by the 
senators ; the knights wore a similar one, only ornamented with a nar- 
rower stripe. Gold rings were also used, as badges of distinction ; the 
common people wore iron ones. 



52 GREAT EVE^'TS. 

isfied with all the magistrates of that year, an interregnum 
ensued. The office of interrex was held by Quintus 
Fabius Maxiraus ; afterward, by Marcus Valerius Cor- 
vus, who elected consuls, Quintus PubliHus Philo, and 
Lucius Papirius Cursor, a second time, [A. U. C. 
434, B.C. 318 ;] a choice universally approved, for 
there were no commanders, at that time, of higher repu- 
tation. 

They entered into office, immediately on being elect- 
ed, for so it had been determined by the fathers. When 
the customary decrees of the senate were passed, ihey 
proposed the consideration of the Caudine peace ; and 
Publilius, whose duty it was to open the business, said, 
" Spurius Postumius, speak." He arose, with just the 
same countenance with which he had passed under the 
yoke, and delivered himself to this effect : 

" Consuls, doubtless I am to be called up, first, with 
marked ignominy, not with honor ; and am ordered to 
speak, not as being a senator, but as a person who has to 
answer for an unsuccessful war and disgraceful peace. 
However, the question, propounded by you, is not concern- 
ing our guilt or our punishment. Waving, therefore, a 
defence, which would not be very difficult, before men who 
are not unacquainted with the casualties to which mankind 
are subject, I shall briefly state my opinion, on the mat- 
ter in question ; which opinion will testify, whether I was 
actuated by tenderness to myself or to your legions, when 
I engaged, as surety, to the convention, be it of what 
kind it may, whether dishonorable or necessary : by 
which, however, the Roman people are not bound, inas- 
much as it was concluded without their order ; nor is any 
thing liable to be forfeited to the Samnites, in consequence 
of it, except our persons. Let us, then, be dehvered 
up to them, by the heralds, naked, and in chains. Let 
us free the people of the religious obligation, if we have 
bound them under any such ; so that there may be no 
restriction. Divine or human, to prevent your entering on 
the war, anew, without violating the maxims of religion 
and justice. 

" I am also of opinion, that the consuls, in the mean 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 53 

time, enlist, arm, and lead out, an army ; but that they 
should not enter the enemy's territories, before every 
particular, respecting the surrender of us, be regularly 
executed. And, O immortal gods ! I pray and beseech 
you, that, although it has not been your will that Spurius 
Postumius and Titus Veturius, in the office of consuls, 
should wage war, with success, against the Samnites, 
you may yet deem it sufficient to have seen us under 
the yoke ; to have seen us bound under an infamous 
convention ; to have seen us shackled, and delivered into 
the hands of our foes, taking on our heads the whole weight 
of the enemy's resentment. And grant, that the consuls 
and legions of Rome may meet the same fortune, in war 
against the Samnites, which has attended them in every 
war, before we became consuls." 

On his concluding this speech, men's minds were so im- 
pressed with admiration and compassion, that they could 
scarce believe him to be the same Spurius Postumius who 
had been the author of so shameful a peace ; lamenting, at 
the same time, that such a man was likely to undergo, 
among the enemy, a punishment, even beyond that of oth- 
ers, through the desire of annulling the peace. All the 
members, showing tenderness towards him, expressed their 
approbation of his sentiments, when Lucius Livius and 
Quintus Mgelius, being tribunes of the commons, attempt- 
ed, for a time, to stop the proceeding, by a protest ; in- 
sisting, that "the people could not be acquitted of the 
rehgious obligation, from the consuls being given up, un- 
less all things were restored to the same state in which 
they had been, at Caudium ; nor had they, themselves, 
deserved any punishment, for having, by becoming sure- 
ties to the peace, preserved the army of the Roman peo- 
ple ; nor, finally, could they, being sacred and invio- 
lable, be surrendered to the enemy, or treated with vio- 
lence." 

To this, Postumius replied : " In the mean time, sur- 
render us as unsanctified persons, which you may do, 
without offence to religion ; those sacred and inviolable 
personages, the tribunes, you will deliver up, as soon as 
they go out of office. But, if you listen to me, thev will 
5* 



54 GREAT EVENTS. 

be first scourged, with rods, here in the Comitium, by way 
of interest for the punishment, on account of the delay of 
payment : for, as to their denying that the people are ac- 
quitted of the religious obligation, by our being given up, 
who is there, so ignorant of the laws of the heralds, as 
not to know, that those men speak in that manner to pre- 
vent themselves from being surrendered, rather than be- 
cause the case is really so ? Still, I do not deny, con- 
script fathers, that compacts, on sureties given, are as 
sacred as treaties, in the eyes of all who regard faith be- 
tween men with the same reverence which is paid to du- 
ties respecting the gods ; but I insist, that, without the 
order of the people, nothing can be ratified, that is to bind 
the people. 

'' Suppose, that, out of the same arrogance with which 
the Samnites forced from us the convention in question, 
they had compelled us to repeat the established form of 
words for the surrendering of cities, would you, tribunes, 
say that the Roman people had surrendered ? and that 
this city, these temples and consecrated grounds, these 
lands and waters, have become the properly of the Sam- 
nites ? I say no more of the surrender, because our 
having become sureties is the point insisted on. Now, 
suppose we had become sureties, that the Roman people 
should quit this city ; that they should set it on fire ; that 
they should have no magistrates, no senate, no laws ; 
that they should in future be ruled by kings : the gods 
forbid, you say. But the enormity of the articles lessens 
not the obligation of a compact. If the people can be 
bound, in any one instance, they can in all. Nor is there 
any importance, in another circumstance, which weighs, 
perhaps, with some : whether a consul, a dictator, or a 
praetor, be the surety. And this, indeed, was the judge- 
ment, even of the Samnites themselves, who were satis- 
fied with the security of the consuls, but compelled the 
lieutenant-generals, qusestors, and military tribunes, to 
join them. 

" Let it not, then, be demanded of me, why I entered 
into such a compact, when no such power was lodged 
in a consul, and when I could not, either to them in 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 55 

sure peace, of which I could not command the ratifica- 
tion ; or, in behalf of you, who had given me no powers. 
Conscript fathers, none of the transactions at Caudium 
were directed by human wisdom. The immortal gods 
deprived of understanding, both your generals and those 
of the enemy. On the one side, we acted not with suffi- 
cient caution ; on the other, they threw away a victory, 
which, by our folly, they had obtained, while they hardly 
confided in the places, by means of which they had con- 
quered ; but were in haste, on any terms, to take arms 
out of the hands of men who were born to arms. Had 
their reason been sound, would it have been difficult, dur- 
ing the time which they spent in sending for old men 
from home to give them advice, to send ambassadors to 
Rome, and to negotiate a peace and treaty with the sen- 
ate and with the people ? It would have been a journey 
of only three days, to expeditious travellers. In the in- 
terim, matters might have rested under a truce, that is, 
until their ambassadors should have brought from Rome 
either certain victory or peace. That would have been 
really a compact, on the faith of sureties, for we should 
have become sureties, by order of the people. But nei- 
ther would you have passed such an order, nor should we 
have pledged our faith ; nor was it the will of fate, that 
the affair should have any other issue, than that they 
should be vainly mocked with a dream, as it were, of 
greater prosperity than their minds were capable of com- 
prehending, and that the same fortune which had entan- 
gled our army, should effectuate its deliverance ; that an 
ineffectual victory should be succeeded by a more effect- 
ual peace ; and that a convention, on the faith of a surety, 
should be introduced, which bound no other person be- 
sides the surety : for what part had you, conscript fath- 
ers ? what part had the people, in this affair ? Who 
can call on you ? Who can say, that he has been de- 
ceived by you } Can the enemy ? Can a citizen ? To 
the enemy, you engaged nothing. You ordered no citi- 
zen to engage on your behalf. You are therefore no way 
concerned, either with us, to whom you gave no com- 
mission ; nor with the Samnites, with whom you trans- 



56 GREAT EVENTS. 

acted no business. We are sureties to the Samnites ; 
debtors, whose abilities are sufSciently extensive over 
that which is our own, over that which we can offer, — 
our bodies and our minds. On these, let them exercise 
their cruelty ; against these, let them whet their resent- 
ment and their swords. As to what relates to the tri- 
bunes, you will consider, whether the delivering them up 
can be immediately effected, or if it must be deferred to 
another day. Meanwhile, let us, Titus Veturius and the 
rest concerned, offer our worthless persons as atonements 
for the non-performance of our engagements, and, by our 
sufferings, liberate the Roman armies." 

These arguments, and still more, the person by whom 
they were delivered, powerfully affected the senators ; 
as they did, likewise, every one, not excepting even 
the tribunes of the commons, who declared that they 
would be directed by the senate. They then instant- 
ly resigned their office, and were delivered, together 
with the rest, to the heralds, to be conducted to Cau- 
dium. 

On passing this decree of the senate, it seemed as if 
some new light had shone on the state. Postumius was 
in every mouth ; they extolled him to heaven ; and pro- 
nounced him to have equalled in glory even the consul 
Publius Decius, who devoted himself. " Through his 
counsel and exertions," they said, "- the Republic had 
raised up its head, after being sunk in an ignominious 
peace. He now offered himself to the enemy's rage, and 
to torments, and was suffering, in atonement for the Ro 
man people." 

All turned their thoughts towards arms and war, and the 
general cry was," When shall we be permitted, with arms 
in our hands, to meet the Samnites ?" While the state 
glowed with resentment and rancor, the levies were com- 
posed almost entirely of volunteers. Legions, composed 
of the former soldiers, were quickly formed, and an army 
marched to Caudium. The heralds, who went before, 
on coming to the gate, ordered the sureties of the peace 
to be stripped of their clothes, and their hands to be tied 
behind their backs. As the apparitor, out of respect to 



SURRENDER OF THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM. 57 

his dignity, was binding Postumius, in a loose manner, 
"Nay," said he, '' draw the cord tight, that the surren- 
der may be regularly performed." Then, when they 
came into the assembly of the Samnites, and to the tri- 
bunal of Pontius, Aulus Cornelius Arvina, a herald, pro- 
nounced these words : " Forasmuch as these men, here 
present, without orders from the Roman people, the 
Quirites, entered into surety that a treaty should be 
made, whereby they have rendered themselves criminal ; 
now, in order that the Roman people may be freed from 
the crime of impiety, I here surrender these men into 
your hands." 

On the herald saying thus, Postumius gave him a 
stroke on the thigh with his knee, as forcibly as he could, 
and said, with a loud voice, that "he was now a citi- 
zen of Samnium, the other, a Roman ambassador ; that 
the herald had been by him violently ill-treated, contrary 
to the law of nations ; and that the people he represented 
would therefore have the more justice on their side, in 
the war which they were about to wage." 

Pontius then said, " Neither will I accept such a sur- 
render, nor will the Samnites deem it valid. Spurius 
Postumius, if you believe that there are gods, why do 
you not undo all that has been done, or fulfil your agree- 
ment ? The Samnite nation is entitled, either to all the 
men whom it had in its power, or, instead of them, to a 
peace. But why do I make a demand on you, who, 
with as much regard to faith as you are able to show, re- 
turn yourself a prisoner into the hands of the conqueror ? 
I make the demand on the Roman people. If they are 
d'ssatisfied with the convention made at the Caudine forks, 
.et them replace the legions within the defile, where they 
were pent up. Let there be no deception, on either 
side. Let all that has been done, pass as nothing. Let 
them receive, again, the arms which they surrendered, by 
the convention : let them return into their camp. What- 
ever they were in possession of, the day before the con- 
ference, let them possess again. Then, let war and res- 
olute counsels be adopted. Then, let the convention 
and peace be rejected. Let us carry on the war, in the 



58 GREAT EVENTS. 

same circumstances and situations in which we were, be- 
fore peace was mentioned. Let neither the Roman peo- 
ple blame the convention of the consuls, nor us, the faith 
of the Roman people. Will you never want an excuse 
for violating the compacts which you make, on being de- 
feated ? You gave hostages to Porsena : you clandes- 
tinely got them back. You ransomed your state from 
the Gauls, for gold : while they were receiving the gold, 
they were put to the sword. You concluded a peace 
with us, on condition of our restoring your captured le- 
gions : that peace you now annul. In fine, you always 
spread over your fraudulent conduct some show of 
right. 

" Do the Roman people disapprove of their legions be- 
ing saved by an ignominious peace } Let them take back 
their peace, and return the captured legions to the con- 
queror. This would be conduct consistent with faith, 
with treaties, and with the laws of the heralds. But that 
you should, in consequence of the convention, obtain 
what you desired, the safety of so many of your country- 
men, while I obtain not what I stipulated for, on send- 
ing you back those men, a peace ; is this the law, which 
you, Aulus Cornelius, which you, heralds, prescribe to 
nations .'' But, for my part, I neither accept those men, 
whom you pretend to surrender, nor consider them as 
surrendered ; nor do I hinder them from returning into* 
their own country, which stands bound, under an actual 
convention, carrying with them the wrath of all the gods, 
whose authority is thus despised. Wage war, since 
Spurius Postumius has just now struck with his knee the 
herald, in character of ambassador. The gods are to 
believe that Postumius is a citizen of Samnium, not of 
Rome ; and that a Roman ambassador has been violated 
by a Samnite ; and that, therefore, you have just grounds 
for a war against us. That men of years and of consu- 
lar dignity should not be ashamed to exhibit such mock- 
ery of religion, in the face of day ! and should have re- 
course to such shallow artifices to palliate their breach 
of faith, as not even children would allow themselves ^ 
Go, lictor, take off the bonds from those Romans 



SURRENDER OP THE ROMANS, NEAR CAUDIUM 59 

Let no one hinder them to depart, when they think 
proper." 

Accordingly, they returned, unhurt, from Caudium to 
the Roman camp, having acquitted certainly their own 
faith, and perhaps that of the public. 



60 GREAT EVENTS. 



IMPEACHMENT OF PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCI- 
PIO, SURNAMED AFRICANUS, AND OF LUCIUS 
CORNELIUS SCIPIO, SURNAMED ASIATICUS. 

BY LIVY. 

LivY, or Titus Livius, a Roman historian, was born in 
Padua, about sixty years before Christ. He removed to 
Rome, where he wrote, at least, by far the greater part of 
his Work. 

The impeachment of the Scipios, for embezzlement of 
public money, took place in the year 565, after the build- 
ing of Rome, or in the year 187, before the birth of Christ ; 
consequently, about a century and a half before Livy wrote 
its account. The following extract is from the translation 
of George Baker. 

The two Petilii, as Valerius Antias writes, instituted 
a prosecution against Publius Scipio Africanus. This 
proceeding was variously construed, according to people's 
different dispositions ; some blamed, not the plebeian tri- 
bunes, but the public in general, that f^ould suffer such a 
process to be carried on. They observed, that " the 
two greatest States in the world proved, nearly at the same 
time, ungrateful to their chief commanders : but Rome, 
the more ungrateful of the two, because Carthage was sub- 
dued, when she sent the vanquished Hannibal into exile ; 
whereas Rome, when victorious, was for banishing Afri- 
canus, who procured her the victory." Others asserted, 
that "no one citizen ought to stand so high above the 
rest, as not to be made answerable to the laws, for his 
conduct ; for nothing contributed so much towards main- 
taining the equipoise of liberty, as that the most power- 
ful might be brought to trial. For how could any charge, 
especially the administration of government, be safely in- 
trusted to any man, if he were not liable to be called tc 



IMPEACHMENT OP THE SCIPIOS. 61 

an account ? If there were any, who could not endure 
an equality of rights, against such, force might justly be 
employed." Such were the common topics of converr 
sation, until the day of trial came. Never was either any 
other person, or Scipio himself, when Consul or Censor, 
escorted to the forum by more numerous multitudes, of 
all kinds, than he was, on that day, when he appeared to 
answer to the charge against him. When ordered to 
make his defence, without taking any notice of the facts 
laid to his charge, he delivered a speech, in which he set 
forth his own exploits in such splendid terms, that it was 
universally agreed, that no man's praises had been ever 
represented, either to more advantage or with more truth : 
for he spoke with the same ardent spirit and powerful 
genius, which had ever animated his conduct in discharg- 
ing the duties of his office ; nor did his speech excite any 
disgust in the hearers, as it arose from the peril of his 
situation, not from motives of ostentation. 

The plebeian tribunes, in order to procure credit to 
their present accusations, introduced the old imputations, 
of his luxurious style of living, in his Winter-quarters at 
Syracuse, and the tumult raised by Pleminius, at Locri. 
They then brought forward, against him, the charge of 
receiving money, which they grounded on suspicions, not 
on proofs. They alleged, that " his son, being taken 
prisoner, was restored without ransom ; and that, in ev- 
ery other instance, Antiochus paid his court to him, as if 
peace and war with Rome were at his sole disposal. He 
had acted towards the Consul, in his Province, as Dic- 
tator, not as lieutenant-general ; nor had he gone thither 
with any other view, than to propagate in Greece and 
Asia, and among all the kings and nations eastward, the 
same opinion, which, at the same time, prevailed in 
Spain, Gaul, Sicily, and Africa, that he, alone, was the 
head and pillar of the Roman empire ; that a State, which 
was mistress of the world, lay sheltered under the shade 
of Scipio ; and that his nods were equivalent to decrees 
of the Senate, and orders of the people." Finding him 
invulnerable, against all attacks on his honor, they assailed 
him with the shafts of envy. The pleading having lasted 

6 G. B. 



62 GREAT EVENTS. 

till night, the trial was adjourned to another day. When 
that came, the tribunes took their seat in the rostrum, at 
the dawn of day. The accused, being summoned, came, 
with a numerous train of friends and dependants, through 
the middle of the assembly, to the rostrum ; and, silence 
being made, he said, " Tribunes of the people, and you, 
Romans : this day is the anniversary, on which I fought a 
pitched battle in Africa, with Hannibal and the Carthagin- 
ians, and found good fortune and success. As, there- 
fore, it is but decent, that a stop be put, for this day, to 
litigation and wrangling, I will immediately go to the Cap- 
itol, there to return my acknowledgements to Jupiter, su- 
premely good and great ; to Juno, Minerva, and the oth- 
er deities presiding over the Capitol and citadel, and will 
give them thanks, for having, on this day, and at many 
other times, endowed me both with the will and ability 
to perform extraordinary services to the Commonwealth. 
Such of you, also, Romans, as can, conveniently, come 
with me, and beseech the gods, that you may have com- 
manders like myself ; since, from my seventeenth year to 
old age, you have always anticipated my years with hon- 
ors, and I, your honors with services." Accordingly, 
he went up from the rostrum to the Capitol ; and, at the 
same time, the whole assembly turned about, and followed 
him ; insomuch, that, at last, even the clerks and mes 
sengers left the tribunes, not one remaining, except the 
slaves who attended them, and the crier, whose office it 
was to summon those who were under prosecution. Sci- 
pio, attended by the whole body of the Roman people, 
went round all the temples of the gods, not only in the 
Capitol, but throughout the whole city. This day afford- 
ed more ample testimony of the favor of the public, and 
a clearer estimate of his real greatness, than that on which 
he rode through Rome, in triumph over King Syphax and 
the Carthaginians. 

It was, however, the last day that shone with lustre on 
Publius Scipio : for, as he could foresee nothing but the 
prosecutions of envy, and continual disputes with the tri- 
bunes, before the time, to which the hearing of the cause 
was adjourned, he retired to Liternum, with a fixed deter* 



IMPEACHMENT OF THE SCIPIOS. 63 

mination not to attend the trial. His natural temper and 
spirit was so lofty, and he had been habituated to such an 
elevated course of fortune, that he did not know how to 
act the part of an accused person, or stoop to the humble 
deportment of such a state. When the day came, on 
his not appearing, he was called by the crier, and Lucius 
Scipio offered, as an excuse, that his absence was caused 
by sickness. This excuse, the tribunes, who were the 
prosecutors, would not admit ; but insisted, that his not 
coming to answer the charges against him, was owing to 
the same arrogance, with which he had left the trial, the 
tribunes of the people, and the general assembly ; and, 
dragging after him, like prisoners, the very men whom he 
had robbed of the right of passing sentence on him, to- 
gether with their freedom of suffrage, had exhibited a tri- 
umph over the Roman people, and made a secession, the 
same day, from the tribunes to the Capitol. " You have, 
therefore," said they, "the due reward of that thought- 
less conduct. You are, yourselves, forsaken by him, 
under whose lead and direction you forsook us. And, so 
much is the Roman spirit daily on the decline, that, al- 
though, seventeen years ago, when he was at the head of 
an army and fleet, we had resolution enough to send ple- 
beian tribunes, and an edile, into Sicily, to take him into 
custody, and bring him home to Rome ; yet we dare not 
now, when he is a private citizen, send to compel him to 
come from his country-seat, to stand his trial." Lucius 
Scipio appealing to the tribunes of the commons, they 
came to this determination, that, " as sickness bad been 
pleaded in his excuse, it was their judgement, that this 
excuse should be admitted, and that their colleagues should 
adjourn the hearing of the cause." 

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was, at that time, a 
plebeian tribune ; and between him and Publius Scipio, 
there was an enmity subsisting. He had forbidden his 
name to be subscribed to the determination of his col- 
league, and every one expected from him a sentence more 
severe, when he pronounced his judgement thus : that, 
" Inasmuch as Lucius Scipio had pleaded sickness, in 
excuse for his brother, that plea appeared to him to be 



64 GREAT EVENTS. 

sufficient ; that he would not suffer any further proceed- 
ing against Publius Scipio, until he should return to 
Rome ; and even then, if he appealed to him, he would 
support him, in refusing to abide a trial : that Publius 
Scipio, by his great achievements, by the honors received 
from the Roman people, by the joint consent of gods and 
men, had risen to such a height of dignity, that, were he to 
stand as a criminal under the rostrum, and be obliged to 
listen to the opprobrious language of youthful petulance, 
it would reflect more disgrace on the Romans, than on 
him." He added, with much indignation, '' Shall Sci- 
pio, the celebrated conqueror of Africa, stand at the feet 
of you, tribunes ? Was it for this, he defeated and routed, 
in Spain, four of the most distinguished generals of the 
Carthaginians, and their four armies ? Was it for this, 
he took Syphax prisoner, conquered Hannibal, made Car- 
thage tributary to you, and removed Antiochus beyond 
Mount Taurus ; (in the glory of which, by the way, Lu- 
cius Scipio was associated with his brother, as partner ;) 
that he should crouch under two Petilii ? that they should 
gain the palm of victory over Publius Africanus ? Will 
men of illustrious characters never, through their own 
merits, or through public honors, arrive at a safe and in- 
violable sanctuary, where their old age may repose, if not 
revered, at least secure from injury ?" Both his deter- 
mination and subsequent discourse made a deep impres- 
sion, not only on the rest of the assembly, but even on 
the prosecutors ; who said, that they would consider fur- 
ther, what might be consistent with their rights and duties. 
As soon as the assembly of the people broke up, the Sen- 
ate met, and there, the warmest thanks were bestowed by 
the whole body, especially by the consular and elder mem- 
bers, on Tiberius Gracchus, for having consulted the pub- 
lic good in preference to private animosity ; while the 
severest reproaches were thrown on the Petilii, for hav- 
ing attempted to bring themselves into notice, by exciting 
the displeasure of the public agamst Africanus, and for 
seeking to gather spoils from a triumph over him. After 
that, Africanus was no more mentioned. He passed the 
remainder of his life at Liternum, without a wish to revisit 



IMPEACHMENT OF THE SCIPIOS. 65 

the city ; and it is said, that, when he was dying, he or- 
dered his body to be buried at his own country-seat, and 
his monument to be erected there, that even his funeral 
should not be performed in his ungrateful country. He 
was a man of eminent merit ; but that merit was more 
conspicuous in affairs of war, than in those of peace. 
The former part of his life was more illustrious, than the 
latter ; because, in his early years, he was continually 
employed in military commands. As he advanced to old 
age, the lustre of his conduct was somewhat faded, as oc- 
casions did not occur to call fordi the exercise of his tal- 
ents. His second consulship, even if we add to it the 
censorship, was far from being equally brilhant with the 
first. Nor can we compare with it, his commission in 
Asia, rendered useless by want of health, and clouded 
by the misfortune of his son, and the necessity which it 
brought him under, after his return, of either undergoing 
a trial, or withdrawing himself from that and his country 
together. However, he enjoyed, alone, the distinguished 
honor of putting an end to the Carthaginian war, by far 
the most difficult and dangerous one which the Roman 
State was ever engaged in. 

The death of Africanus increased the courage of his 
enemies, the chief of whom was Marcus Porcius Cato, 
who, even during his life, allowed himself to sneer at his 
splendid character. It was thought, that it was he who 
instigated the Petilii, both to commence the action against 
Africanus, and to propose an order respecting him, after 
his death. The motion for the order was made in these 
words : "• Romans, is it your will to order, with respect 
to the money taken, carried off, and collected, from King 
Antiochus, and those under his government, and with re- 
spect to such part thereof, as has not been accounted for 
to the pubHc, that Servius Sulpicius, the city pretor, shall 
ask the Senate, which of the present pretors they will 
appoint, to hold an inquiry concerning those matters .'^" 
This motion was at first objected to, by Quintus and Lu- 
cius Mummius, who declared, as their opinion, that, ac- 
cording to the practice always hitherto observed, the Sen- 
ate should make the inquiry concerning money unaccount- 
ed 



66 GREAT EVENTS. 

ed for to the public. The Petilii, in opposition, repre- 
sented the great influence, the sovereign power, which 
the Scipios possessed in the Senate. Lucius Furius Pur- 
pureo, a senator of consular rank, who had been one of 
the ten ambassadors in Asia, was of opinion, that the in- 
quiry ought to be carried to a wider extent ; not only as 
to the money taken from Antiochus, but to what had been 
taken from other kings and nations. This blow he aimed 
at his enemy, Cneius Manlius. Lucius Scipio, who, 
as every one knew, was arguing rather in favor of himself 
than against the order, stood forward to oppose it. He 
complained, heavily, of such a motion being brought on, 
after the death of his brother, Publius Africanus, the brav- 
est and most illustrous of men. For, it had not been 
deemed sufficient, that no panegyric was pronounced from 
the rostrum on Africanus, after his death, but accusations 
of misconduct were also exhibited against him. The 
Carthaginians had been content with the banishment of 
Hannibal ; but the Roman people would not be satisfied, 
even with the death of Publius Scipio, unless, after he 
was laid in his grave, his character were mangled, and his 
brother also sacrificed, another victim to envy. Marcus 
Cato supported the motion, in a speech, on the money 
of King Antiochus, which is still extant ; and, by his in- 
fluence, prevailed on the Mummii, the two tribunes, to 
drop their opposition to the order. On their withdraw- 
ing their intended protest, every one of the tribes voted 
in favor of the motion. 

Servius Sulpicius then put the question to the Senate, 
whom they would appoint, according to the Petilian order 
of the people, to hold the inquiry ; and they appointed 
Quintus Terentius Culeo. This pretor was so warmly 
attached to the Cornelian family, that, according to the 
account of those writers, who say that Publius Scipio 
died and was buried at Rome, (for that, too, is asserted,) 
he had walked at his funeral, before the bier, with a cap 
of liberty on his head, as he had done, before, at his tri- 
umph ; and that, at the Capuan gate, he gave wine and 
honey to those who attended the obsequies, to show his 
gratitude for having been recovered by Scipio, among 



IMPEACHMENT OF THE SCIPIOS. 67 

Other captives, out of the hands of the enemy, in Africa ; 
while others say, he was so great an enemy to that family, 
that, on account of his known animosity, the faction that 
supported the proceedings against the Scipios, singled out 
him, particularly, to hold the inquiry. However that may 
be, whether he was too favorable, or too much the con- 
trary ; before him, Lucius Scipio was immediately ar- 
raigned. At the same time, charges were presented and 
received, against his lieutenants-general, the two Hosti- 
lius Catos, Aulus and Lucius, and his questor, Caius 
Furius Aculeo ; and, that it might seem as if every one 
had been infected with the contagion of peculation, against 
his two secretaries and crier, Lucius Hostilius. The 
secretaries and the crier were acquitted, before Scipio 
was tried. Scipio, and Aulus Hostilius, lieutenant-gen- 
eral, and Caius Furius, were convicted, and judgement 
was pronounced that, " as bribes, for granting more favor- 
able terms of peace to Antiochus, Scipio had received, 
over and above what he brought into the treasury, six 
thousand pounds weight of gold, and four hundred and 
eighty of silver ; Aulus Hostilius, eighty pounds of gold, 
and four hundred and three of silver ; and Furius, the 
questor, one hundred and thirty of gold, and two hundred 
of silver." These sums of gold and silver, I find men- 
tioned by Antias. As to what regards Lucius Scipio, 
I suspect some mistake of the transcriber, rather than a 
falsehood of the historian, respecting the amount of gold 
and silver ; for it is more probable, that the weight of sil- 
ver was greater than that of gold, and that fhe fine was 
laid at four milHons,* than at twenty-four millions of ses- 
terces, f And this I am the more inclined to beheve, 
as it is recorded, that particulars of that sum being de- 
manded from Publius Scipio, himself, in the Senate, he 
desired his brother Lucius to bring the book which con- 
tained them, and which he took and tore to pieces before 
their eyes ; at the same time, expressing indignation, at 
being called to an account for four millions, after he had 
brought two hundred millions^ into the treasury. Fronti 

* £3229 13s. 4d t £193,750. t £1,614,583 6s. 8d. 



68 GREAT EVENTS. 

the same magnanimity of spirit, when the questors would 
not venture to bring money out of the coffers, contrary to 
law, he demanded the keys of the treasury, declaring, that 
he would open it, as he had caused it to be shut. 

There are so many contradictory accounts, respecting 
the latter part, particularly, of Scipio's hfe, — of his trial, 
death, funeral, and sepulchre, that I cannot determine 
which tradition, or which writings, I ought to credit. 
Writers do not agree, as to his accuser ; some affirming 
that Marcus Nsevius, others, that the Petilii, instituted the 
prosecution ; neither are they agreed, as to the time when 
it was carried on, nor the year in which he died, nor the 
place, nor where he was buried. Some assert, that he 
died, and was buried, at Rome ; others, at Liternum ; 
and in both places, memorials of him are shown ; for, at 
Liternum there was a monument, and on it stood his 
statue, which was lately seen lying on the ground, where 
it had been thrown down by a storm. At Rome, is like- 
wise a monument of the Scipios ; and, outside the Capuan 
gate, are three statues, two of which are said to be those 
of Publius and Lucius Scipio, and the third, that of the 
poet Quintus Ennius. Nor do these differences subsist 
between historians, only ; the speeches attributed to Pub- 
lius Scipio and Tiberius Gracchus^ if they really are 
theirs, differ widely from one another. In the title of 
Publius Scipio's speech, is the name of Marcus Nsevius, 
plebeian tribune ; but in the speech, itself, the prosecutor 
is not named ; it only calls him, sometimes a knave, some- 
times a triffer. Even the speech of Gracchus makes no 
mention of the Petiliuses accusing Africanus, or of the 
prosecution carried on against him. The whole story 
must be framed after another model, to make it consistent 
with the speech of Gracchus ; and those writers must be 
followed, who affirm, that, at the time when Lucius Sci- 
pio was impeached, and convicted of having taken money 
from the king, Africanus was a lieutenant-general in 
Etruria ; whence, on hearing of this misfortune, throwing 
up his commission, he hastened to Rome, proceeding 
straight from the gate to the forum. Being told that Lu- 
cius had been ordered into confinement, he drove away 



IMPEACHMENT OF THE SCIPIOS. 69 

the officer from his person ; and, on the tribunes attempt- 
ing to detain him, laid violent hands on them, showing 
more affection towards his brother than regard for the 
laws. Of these acts, Gracchus himself complained, say- 
ing, that the tribunitian power was illegally annulled ; and, 
at last, when he promises support to Lucius Scipio, he 
adds, that the precedent would be the more tolerable, if 
both the tribunitian authority and the State appeared to 
be overpowered by a tribune of the Commons, than if by 
a private citizen. But, while he loaded him with re- 
proaches, for this signal instance of intemperate violence ; 
while he charged him with having degenerated so far from 
himself; he displayed his long-established praises for mod- 
eration, and government of his passions, in such strong 
terms, as to make ample amends for the present repre- 
hension : for he said, that Scipio formerly rebuked the 
people, severely, for their intention of making him per- 
petual consul and dictator ; that he hindered statues to be 
erected to him, in the comitium, in the rostrum, in the 
Senate-house, in the Capitol, in the chapel of Jupiter's 
temple ; and, that he prevented a decree being passed, 
ordering his image, in a triumphal habit, to be brought in 
procession, out of the temple of Jupiter, supremely good 
and great. Such particulars as these, even if inserted in 
a professed panegyric, would demonstrate an uncommon 
greatness of mind, in restraining honors conformably lo 
the temper of a constitution founded on an equality of 
rights ; but, here, they are acknowledged by an enemy, 
and at thskvery time that he was employed in censuring 
him. 

It is universally agreed, that the younger of Scipio's 
two daughters was married to this Gracchus ; for the el- 
der was, undoubtedly, disposed of by her father to Publius 
Cornelius Nasica. But it is not so certain, whether she 
was both betrothed and married after her father's death, 
or whether we are to credit those accounts, which say, 
that, when the officers were taking Scipio to prison, and 
no other of the tribunes interfered to protect him, Grac- 
chus swore, that " the same enmity which he had enter- 
tained against the Scipios still subsisted ; and that he did 



70 GREAT EVENTS. , H 

not, by any act of his, seek to gain their favor. Bm 
that, having seen Pubhus Africanus leading the kings and 
generals of enemies to prison, he would never suffer his 
brother to be led to the same place." They add., that 
the senators, happening to sup, that day, in the Capitol, 
rose up together, and requested of Africanus, before the 
company departed, to contract his daughter to Gracchus ; 
that the contract was accordingly executed, in due form, 
in the presence of this assembly ; and that Scipio, on his 
return home, told his wife ^Emilia, that he had concluded 
a match for her younger daughter : that she, feeling her 
female pride hurt, expressed some resentment, on not 
having been consulted in the disposal of their common 
child ; and added, that, even were he giving her to Tibe- 
rius Gracchus, her mother ought not to be kept in igno- 
rance of his intention : to which Scipio, rejoiced at her 
judgement concurring so entirely with his own, replied, 
that Gracchus was the man he had betrothed her to. 
These circumstances respecting so great a captain, though 
variously represented, both in traditionary and written 
relation, I thought not fit to be passed over in silence. 

On the proceedings being finished by the pretor Quin- 
tius Terentius, Hostilius and Furius were condemned, 
and gave securities, the same day, to the city questors. 
Scipio insisted, that all the money received by him was in 
the treasury, and that he had not in his possession any 
thing, whatsoever, belonging to the public ; on which he 
was ordered to prison. Publius Scipio Nasica then ap- 
pealed to the tribunes, and made a speech, fraught with 
just encomiums, not only on the Cornelian family, in gen- 
eral, but on his own branch of it, in particular. " His 
father," he said, "and the father of Publius Africanus 
and Lucius Scipio, who was now ordered to prison, were 
Cneius and Publius Scipio, men of the most illustrious 
characters ; who, by their conduct in war, through a long 
course of years, against many commanders and many ar- 
mies of the Carthaginians and Spaniards, highly enhanced 
the reputation of the Roman name, in the land of Spain ; 
and that, not only by their military exploits, but also by 
exhibiting to the nations of that country, shining exam- 



IMPEACHMENT OF THE SCIPIOS. 71 

pies of Roman moderation and fidelity ; both, at last, 
meeting their death in the service of the Roman people. 
Although their descendants might have contented them- 
selves with supporting the glory derived from them, yet 
Publius Africanus so far surpassed his father's renown, as 
to occasion a belief, that he was not born of the human 
race, but was of divine extraction. As to Lucius Scipio, 
the person then concerned, (to pass over his exploits in 
Spain and in Africa, while he acted as lieutenant-general 
to his brother,) on his being elected Consul, so high did 
he stand in the estimation of the Senate, that they thouglit 
proper to assign to him the province of Asia, and the 
war with x\ntiochus, by a special order, without leaving 
it to the decision of the lots ; while, in that of his brother, 
after having been honored with two consulships, the cen- 
sorship, and a triumph, he thought fit to attend him into 
Asia, in quality of lieutenant-general. There, that the 
great and splendid character of the lieutenant might not 
eclipse the fame of the Consul, it so happened, that, on 
the day when Lucius Scipio conquered Antiochus in a 
pitched battle, at Magnesia, Publius Scipio was absent, at 
the distance of several days' journey, being detained by 
sickness at Elaea. The army of the enemy, on that oc- 
casion, was not inferior to that of Hannibal, when the 
battle was fought with him in Africa ; and the same Han- 
nibal, who was commander-in-chief in the Carthaginian 
war, was one, among many other generals, then present, 
on the king's side. The war, indeed, was so conducted, 
that no one could throw blame even on fortune. A ground 
of accusation is sought for, in the peace, and people say, 
that it was sold. This charge is as applicable to the ten 
ambassadors, in pursuance of whose counsel the peace 
was concluded. Some of the ten ambassadors had even 
stood forth as accusers of Cneius Manlius ; yet their 
charges were so far from gaining credit, that they did not 
produce even a delay of his triumph. 

" But, truly, the very articles of the peace afford 
grounds of suspicion, respecting Scipio, as being too fa- 
vorable to Antiochus ; for his entire kingdom has been left 
to him. Although conquered, he retains possession of every 



72 GREAT EVENTS. 

thing that belonged to him, before the war ; and, though 
he had an immense quantity of gold and silver, none of it 
has been apphed to the use of the public : all has been 
converted to private purposes. Now, was there not a 
larger quantity of gold and silver carried before the eyes 
of the public, in the triumph of Lucius Scipio, than in ten 
other triumphs taken together ? Why need I speak of 
the extent of the kingdom of Antiochus, or mention his 
having been in possession of all Asia, and the adjoining 
parts of Europe ? Every body knows, what a large por- 
tion of the surface of the earth that is, which stretches 
from Mount Taurus quite to the ^gean sea ; what a num- 
ber, not only of cities, but of nations, it comprehends ; 
and that this tract, as far as the summit of the said mount, 
more than thirty days' journey in length, and ten in 
breadth, from one sea to the other, has been taken from 
Antiochus, who is, thereby, removed to the most distant 
corner of the world ? Now, if peace had been granted 
him without any pecuniary consideration, could more have 
been taken from him ? Macedonia was left to Philip, after 
he was conquered ; Lacedaemon to Nabis ; yet Quintius 
was never accused, on that account. The reason was, 
that he had not Africanus for a brother, whose high re- 
nown ought to have been serviceable to Lucius Scipio; 
but, instead of that, envy of his merit had done him injury. 
The sentence mentioned a quantity of gold and silver 
being conveyed to the house of Lucius Scipio, greater 
than could be raised from the sale of his whole property. 
Where, then, was all this royal treasure ; where the value 
of so many estates received ? Surely, in a house not 
exhausted by extravagance, this new accumulation of 
wealth ought to appear. But what cannot be levied out 
of his effects, the enemies of Lucius Scipio will exact 
from his person, and from his very flesh, by vexatious per- 
secution and insult ; by shutting up a man of his illustri- 
ous character in a prison, among thieves and robbers ; 
forcing him to breathe his last in a dungeon and in dark- 
ness, and then throwing his naked corpse before the prison 
door. Such proceedings will reflect more disgrace on 
the city of Rome than they will on the Cornelian family." 



IMPEACHMENT OF THE SCIPIOS. 73 

In answer to this, the pretor Tei'entius read the Pe- 
tilian order of the people, the decree of the Senate, and 
the judgement pronounced against Lucius Scipio ; and 
declared, that, unless the money adjudged were paid into 
the public treasury, he had no other step to take, than to 
order the person convicted to oe taken into custody, and 
carried to prison. The tribunes retired, to confer togeth- 
er, and, in a short time after, Caius Fannius, in behalf 
of himself and all his colleagues, except Gracchus, de- 
clared, that the tribunes would not interfere with the pre- 
tor, to hinder his making use of his power. Tiberius 
Gracchus pronounced his determination thus : " That he 
would not protest against the pretor's levying the sum ad- 
judged, out of the effects of Lucius Scipio, but that Lu- 
cius Scipio, who had subdued the most powerful king 
in the world, had extended the empire of the Roman 
people to the utmost limits of the earth, had bound under 
obligations to the Roman people King Eumenes, the 
Rhodians, and so many other states of Asia, and had led 
in triumph so many generals of the enemies, should lie in 
prison, among the enemies of the Roman people, and in 
chains, he never would suffer ; and, therefore, he ordered 
him to be discharged." This decision was heard with 
such approbation ; so happy were the people at seeing 
Lucius Scipio at liberty ; that it could hardly be supposed, 
that the sentence had been passed in the same communi- 
ty. The pretor then sent the questors to take possession 
of Lucius Scipio's property, for the use of the public. 
But, so far from any trace appearing, of money received 
from the king, the sale did not produce near as much as 
the sum in which he was fined. So large a contribution 
was made for Lucius Scipio by his relations, friends, and 
dependants, that, if he had accepted it, he would have 
been much richer, than before this misfortune ; but he 
would receive nothing. Such things, as were necessary 
for his family occasions, were purchased for him, at the 
sale, by his nearest relations ; and the public hatred, which 
had been pointed against the Scipios, reverted on the 
pretor, his accessors, and the accusers. 

7 G. F.. 



74 ' GREAT EVENTS. 



DELIVERY OF THE FOUR SWISS FOREST 
DISTRICT^^ALDSTALLE.) 

TAKEN FROM TSCHUDl's SWISS CHRONICLE. 

Aegidius Tschudi, (pronounced Chudi,) was born at 
Glarus, in Switzerland, in 1505, and of good family. He 
pursued a regular course of studies in his native country, 
and afterwards went to Paris. Protestants and Roman 
Catholics, among his countrymen, esteemed him alike, and 
intrusted him with important employments. He was chosen 
Landamman, or chief magistrate of Glarus, and died in 
1572. His Swiss Chronicle is one of the most distinguished 
works of the kind. He collected, with unabated zeal, from 
all sources accessible to him, among which the archives 
of his country wei^e the most important. His work was 
published only as far as the year 1470, although he had 
collected manuscripts for the history of one more century. 
The title of the work is 'Aegidii Tschudii Landamman of 
Glarus, Chronicon Helveticum ; or, Accurate Description 
of the most Remarkable Events in the Holy Roman Em- 
pire, as well as, in particular, in the Honorable (Swiss) 
Confederacy, and neighboring Places. The whole col- 
lected from authentic Letters and Documents, Stc, in the 
chief Archives of the Honorable Confederacy. Edited by 
R. Irelin.' Tschudi 's Chronicle is written in the Swiss 
dialect of German. 

Albert, the son of the German Emperor, Rudolph of 
Hapsburg, desired to erect a new dukedom in Helvetia, 
or Switzerland, which should depend apon his family, so 
that all the scattered domains appertaining to the family, 
between which the territory of the intended dukedom lay, 
should be more firmly united. When he had acquired the 
imperial crown, after the defeat of his opponent, Adolphus 
of Nassau, he proposed to the free inhabitants of the Swiss 
districts, Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, to exchange their 
direct dependence on the Germanic empire, of which they 
were members, for the more powerful protection of the 
House of Austria, or Hapsburg. Contrary to the rights 
of these Swiss, Albert had appointed over them Austrian, 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS. 75 

instead of imperial, officers. The Swiss complained, and 
asked for the appointment of imperial bailiffs, orlandvogts. 
Albert did, indeed, appoint such, but in a manner greatly 
to harass the formerly contented mountaineers. In brief, 
the struggle was between Austrian power and Swiss inde- 
pendence. To this struggle, relates the following extract 
from Tschudi, Volume I., Book 4. 
« 

Anno Domini, 1304, when the districts of Uri, 
Schwytz, and Unterwalden, were sorely oppressed, in 
that the bailiffs of Lucern of Rotenburg, officers, of the 
dukes of Austria, administered high justice with -them, 
which now had lasted three years. The Swiss vi'^t'e 
afraid, that this beginning might end in Austrian domin- 
ion over them, as though ihey were subjects to Austria ; 
especially, as some of the commissioners had dropped, 
when administering criminal justice, that they did so in the 
name of Austria, [that is, not as officers of the German 
empire.] The mentioned districts, therefore, saw nec- 
essary to send, once more, their earnest message to Kirfg 
Albert,* in order to request him to send them an imperial 
bailiff, who should administer justice in the name of the 
empire, according to ancient usage ; and also respectfully 
to pray his royal dignity, that he would protect their impe- 
rial and regal liberties and ancient customs. They would 
not pray for their confirmation, since, on former occasions, 
it had always been ip vain. 

When this requRt was made, the King became an- 
gry, because he saw, that, neither by good words, kindness, 
nor intrigues, he had succeeded in making them subject 
to his sons, the princes of Austria, or in disuniting them. 
He said to the messengers, " Go home, since it must be 
so, and you will have it ; we will give you imperial bai- 
liffs in your countries. Ye shall obey their orders, in all 
things, as if ourselves ; and, if ye shall not do it, we shall 
revenge it on your lives and goods, and ye shall, hence- 
forth, have forfeited *all your privileges." 

* The head of the German empire was called King, until actually 
crowned as Emperor. When a successor was elected, while the Em- 
peror was yet living, he was likewise called King. 



76 GREAT EVENTS. 

Shortly thereupon, the King sent them two landvogts, 
(bailiffs,) in the name of the empire, and ordered them to 
reside in their country, which had never been the custom. 

In the year 1305, the three lands, Uri, Schwytz, and 
Unterwalden, sent their respectful messages to King Al- 
bert, to complain of the severity and cruelty, with which 
his vogts, Gessler and Landenberg, treated them, and to 
beg his royal Highness graciously to abolish this ill-usage, 
and to protect them in their liberties and customs. But 
the King would not hear them. Yet he allowed them to 
appear before his counsellors. To them, the messengers 
told the tyranny of the landvogts, how they oppressed the 
country people, for trifling causes, and frequently without 
any cause, or honest, just evidence, against their privileges 
and liberties ; how they imprisoned them in towers or 
stocks ; fined them, also ; sometimes, drove them out of 
the country ; and, many times, suffered them to rot and 
perish in the prisons, &c. 

^ The royal counsellors, after having consulted, gave an- 
swer : They (the three lands) should consider, that they, 
themselves, had caused this severity, and had made the 
King ungracious, since they would not act like those of 
Lucern, Glarus, and others ; and, if they should ever do 
the same, they would then, without fail, enjoy full favor 
from the King, and his sons, the dukes of Austria. 
They should now return, the King being burdened with 
much business ; but, at a proper timlfc, they, the counsel- 
lors, would lay their prayer before him. 

With this, they were obliged to return, without any 
other answer; and, when they came home, it became worse 
than ever, the vogts beginning to be still more cruel. 

In this year, (1306,) at the beginning of the fall of the 
leaf, the lord of Wolfenschiessen, King's bailiff in the cas- 
tle of Rotzberg, in Unterwalden, below the Kernwald, 
rode toward Engelberg, into the convent there ; and when, 
on the morrow, he left the convent, he found the wife of 
a godly countryman, called Cunrat of Baumgarten, who 
was of Atzelen, in a meadow, where she was at work ; 
for Atzelen is situated below the wood, near the road 
from Stans to Engelberg, not far behind the village of 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS 77 

Wolfenschiessen, upon a rising ground. The woman was 
wonderfully beautiful, and the bailiff was kindled in wicked 
desire, on account of her beauty. So he asks the woman, 
where her husband was ? The woman answers, that he 
had gone out, and was not at home. He asks, again, 
when he would come home. The woman was not aware, 
that all this conversation was on her account, but feared, 
that her husband might have done something, that had 
displeased, so that the bailiff would punish him, because 
he asked, so carefully, where he was ; for she knew his 
cruel disposition ; therefore, she answered, she beheved 
he would be absent for some days, she could not say how 
long ; (yet she knew, very well, that he was in the wood, 
and would be home for dinner.) When the bailiff heard this, 
he spoke to the woman : "Woman, I shall go home with 
thee, for I have to say something to thee." The woman 
startled, but durst not contradict him, and went with him. 
When there, he oirijred her to prepare a bath, for that 
the walking had luude him tired and dusty. Then the 
woman apprehended nothing good, and longed, in her 
mind, for her husband, that he might soon come from the 
wood, and unwillingly prepared the bath. And, when the 
bath was prepared, the vogt began to show his wickedness, 
and desired her to bathe with him. The woman trembled, 
for she could well see, that he meant to use violence; she 
prayed to God, in her heart, to protect her honor, and 
avert her degradation. And now she thought upon a 
scheme, spoke kindly with the vogt, as if she would do 
as he desired, and said to him, he ought to tell his ser- 
vants, (of whom he had two with him,) to go away ; after 
that, she would join him in the bath. The vogt bade the 
servants go away, and the woman told him to go into the 
bath ; she, in the mean time, would prepare herself, in her 
room, and soon join him. The vOgt did as she desired. 
But the woman went out of the back-door, and meant to 
stand there ; when presently comes her husband, to whom, 
with tears, and a low voice, she whispers what the tyrant 
had intended with her, and how he was now in the bath. 
The honest man said, " Praised be the Lord, my pious 
wife, that he has protected thee, that thou hast saved thine 
7* 



78 GREAT EVENTS. 

honor ; I '11 bless his bath, that he shall injure no more 
women ; for it is better that I wager my life, than that 
any shame should befall thee, my beloved wife. Where- 
upon, he quickly went into the house, and knocked the 
baihfF on the head, with his axe, that he died with one 
blow. The man fled, immediately, to Uri, where he re- 
mained in secret, although diligently pursued, on account 
of the shameful deed which the vogt had intended to per- 
petrate. 

Anno Domini, 1307, there w^as a godly countryman in 
Unterwalden, above the Kernwald, who was called Hen- 
ry von Melchtal, and resided in the same valley, (that is, 
at Melchtal) a wise, judicious, honorable, and substan- 
tial man, and well esteemed among the country folks, 
and always actively maintaining, that they should stick to 
their privileges, and not allow themselves to be separated 
from the empire, for which Beringer of Landenberg, 
landvogt over the whole of Unterwalden, was very hos- 
tile to him. This Melchtal had fine cattle ; and, for some 
trifling offence, which his son Arnold of Melchtal, was 
said to have committed, (which, however, the same de- 
nied, and, had it been true, the honestly-awarded fine 
could not have amounted to more than five shillings,) the 
landvogt sent his servants, to seize upon his finest yoke 
of oxen, as a fine due to him ; and should the old Henry 
of Melchtal object to it, the servant should answer, that 
it was the vogt's opinion, the peasants themselves should 
pull the plough, and upon this, he should seize the oxen, 
and bring them to him. The servant did as the master 
had bid him. The honest man did not like that his own 
should be taken from him, by force, and said, his son was 
not guilty, and if the vogt had any right against him, he 
should prove it by law, and then punish ; but the servant 
insisted upon having the oxen, as he had been ordered. 
And when he unyoked them, the son of the farmer, Ar 
nold, (who was a young man,) kindled in wrath, and gave 
a blow, with a stick, over the hand of the servant, and 
broke one of his fingers, upon which he forthwith fled 
from out the land, to Uri, where he hid himself, for a 
Jong while, with one of his kinsfolks, and where Cunrat of 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS. 79 

Atzelen was likewise concealed. The servant made great 
complaint to the landvogt, who sent in anger, for the 
youth's old father, and ordered the youth to be imprisoned. 
But when the youth was not to be found, for he had fled, 
the old man alone arrived. The landvogt addressed him, 
in harsh and violent words, and commanded him to bring, 
immediately, his son Arnold. The honest man himself 
did not yet know where his son was, and easily perceived, 
that, were he present, his life would be endangered. He 
answered, that, in truth, he did not know, himself, where 
his son was, for he had run from home immediately, and 
never informed him whither he meant to go. Upon this, 
the landvogt ordered that the old father (who was an hon- 
orable man, far advanced in years,) should lose both his 
eyes ; for the servant had informed him that the old man 
had said, he was going to take his property unjustly ; 
and, in addition, he took the oxen, and commanded the 
blind man to pay a large sum to the servant, for the bro- 
ken finger. The country folks became, upon this cruel 
tyranny, very visibly exasperated. And when Arnold, 
the son, learned what had happened to his pious father, 
he secretly complained of it to some faithful people in 
Uri, and hoped, in time, to revenge the cruelty inflicted 
upon his father. The country people expostulated with 
the landvogt, that it was burdensome for them to be treat- 
ed thus severely ; but the landvogt answered, that the 
King, whose servant he was, had ordered him to treat 
them thus. 

At the same time, Gessler, the landvogt of Uri and 
Schwytz, oppressed both the nobles and the common 
people of these districts, as much as Landenberg did at 
Unterwalden ; kept them hard and severe, and obliged 
them to build a castle at Uri, that he, and other landvogts 
after him, might live there in greater safety, if there should 
be disturbances, and that the country might altogether be 
kept in better obedience. He therefore caused stone, 
mortar, sand, and timber, to be carried on a hill, called 
Salaturn, near AltdorfF, the chief place, and began to ex- 
ecute the work ; and, when he was asked, what name he 
was going to give to the castle, he answered, " the name 



80 GREAT EVENTS. ^ 

shall be, Zwing (force or subdue) Uri under the Rod." 
This gave great scandal to the nobles of the land and the 
country people, in Uri, and this building, was a great 
thorn in their eyes. When he observed that they highly 
resented this rearing of a castle, he became enraged, and 
swore he would make them so soft, that he would wind 
them round his finger. 

And, upon the day of St. Jacob!, he caused to be 
planted a pole near AltdorfF, near the linden trees, where 
every one must pass ; upon this pole, he caused a hat to 
be placed, and proclaimed, that every one in the district, 
who should pass, should bow, and take off his bonnet, and 
show respect, as though the King himself, or some man 
in his place, were there present, under the penalty of limb 
and property. He also stationed guards, there, to watch, 
night and day, that no one should act to the contrary. He 
thought he would earn great reputation, if he should suc- 
ceed in bringing into the lowest submission, this manly, 
gallant, and reputable, people, which had always been in 
high esteem with emperors, kings, princes, and lords. 
This insolence galled the people, still worse than the 
building of the castle ; yet they could not yet oppose it, 
on account of the King's evident great anger, and mighty 
power, nor could they hope to obtain mercy from him. 

In those days, it so happened, that landvogt Gessler, 
(when he meant to go from Uri to Kiissnacht to his cas- 
tle,) when he rode through Schwytz, over which he was 
likewise landvogt, a man lived at Steinen, in Schwytz, 
wise, honorable, and of ancient family, called Wernherr 
of StaufFach, son of Rudolph of Stauffach, who had been 
landamman of Schwytz. This Wernherr had built a fine 
new house, this side the brook, near Steinen. When 
the landvogt came to this house, and Stauffach, who 
stood before it, received him friendly, and welcomed him 
as his lord, the landvogt asked him, whose house this 
was ? (though he knew very well, for he had said to oth- 
ers, that he would take the house.) Stauffach was aware 
that he asked for no good purpose, and that he harbored 
enmity against him, because he had always maintained, 
that they should not surrender to Austria, but remain 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS. 81 

with the empire and their ancient hberties, and he had 
great influence with the country people. He, therefore, 
thus replied : "Sir, this house is my lord the King's, and 
yours, and mine." The landvogt said, '' I am regent in 
the land, for my master the King, and will not allow 
that peasants build houses, without my permission, nor 
will I permit that you live so free, as though yourselves 
were lords ; I shall show you, that I will prevent it :" 
upon which, he rode on. These words troubled Stauf- 
fach, much, and pierced him to the heart. Now, he 
was a judicious, careful man, and had a wise and ingen- 
ious wife, who soon perceived that something oppressed 
his mind, yet he did not open it to her. Still, she was 
desirous of knowing the cause, and, at length, he told her 
what the landvogt had said to him, and that he did not 
expect any thing better, than to lose, in time, his house, 
home, goods, and every thing. When she learned this, 
she said, " My dear husband, you know that many gooo 
people, in our country, complain of the tyranny of the 
landvogt, nor do I doubt but many honest people, in Uri 
and Unterwalden, feel oppressed by the cruel yoke, as 
we daily hear that they sorely complain. Therefore, it 
would be well, if some few, who confide in one another, 
should secretly advise together, and reflect how this tyran- 
nical power might be thrown off, and assist and protect one 
another's justice, and God would not abandon you, but 
would aid you in bridling all this unfairness, if we implore 
his aid from the depth of our souls." She then asked him, 
whether he knew any one in Uri and Unterwalden, whom 
he might trust for information, and to whom he might con- 
fide his plans. He answered, ''yes, I know, there, many 
jioble people, who are attached to me, and whom I may 
trust." So Stauffach thought within him, that his wife's ad- 
vice might not be bad, followed it, and went to Uri, where 
he remained some days, to listen how the common peo- 
ple were disposed. There he heard, from many honorable 
persons, great complaints against the landvogt. This re- 
joiced Stauffach, for he thought the ])lan might succeed ; 
yet he trusted it, at this time, to one reputable and wise 
man, only, to Walter Furst. The landamman of Ur* 



82 GREAT EVENTS. 

praises the woman's advice, and informs him of Arnold ol 
Melchtal, of Untervvalden, who had broken the finger of 
the servant sent by the landvogt of Unterwalden ; how the 
same continued to tarry in Uri ; but frequently, he would 
go in secrecy to his family, in Unterwalden, and that he 
was a valiant, judicious man, although young, but he might 
be safely trusted ; he would, by ingenuity, deserve well 
of this plan. 

Thus, he, too, was sent for, and these three men, 
Walter Furst, of Uri, Wernherr von Stauffach, of 
Schwytz, and Arnold von Melchtal, of Unterwalden, 
agreed, that they would implore God's assistance, and 
would undertake this cause ; upon which, they took an 
oath to God and his saints ; and the following points were 
settled, namely, that each of them should gain and 
enlist such as he could of his relations, and other trust- 
worthy people, for aid and assistance, in their league 
and sworn obligations, to reconquer their ancient liberty, 
and to expel the tyrannical landvogts and their overbear- 
ing dominion, to protect one another, by law and right, 
and to wager life and limb for it. Yet that, nevertheless, 
each country should remain in faithful obedience to the holy 
Roman empire, and every one do his particular duty and 
service, to which he was bound, be it to churches, lords, 
nobles, or commoners, or any other, in or out of the coun- 
try, as from ancient times, so far as these did not, on 
their part, attempt to deprive them of their rights and lib- 
erties. 

It was likewise agreed, that, if any thing should happen, 
which should require advice, that these three should be 
called together, and meet at the Mytenstein, which stands 
in the lake under Sewlisberg, at one of the ends called 
Rutlin ; and, if God should mercifully increase their un- 
ion, each one should bring to that place, (Rutlin,) two, 
three, or more, with him, who had wisely and cautiously, 
likewise, taken the oath. 

It was also agreed, that, by their oath, the whole should 
remain secret, until their league should be proclaimed in 
all three districts, at once. 

Thus the league was first formed and sworn to, by the 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS. 83 

three stanch men in Uri, from which the confederacy 
originated, and by which the country of Helvetia, (now 
called Switzerland,) has been brought back to its most 
ancient state and liberty. Upon this, StaufFach hastily 
returned to Schwytz, and Erni von Melchtal, with Cun- 
rat von Baumgarten, of Atzelen, (who, likewise, imme- 
diately took the oath of the league,) went secretly togeth- 
er to Unterwalden, where the one did all he could, in 
the land above the forest, and the other, below. This 
happened in the Autumn. 

Now, those of Uri and Schwytz would have liked to 
act at once, which, however, was not convenient to those 
of Unterwalden, on account of the two fastnesses in their 
country, Sarnen and Rotzberg ; for they feared, that these 
fastnesses could not be conquered in such haste. But, if 
the matter could be delayed for eight weeks, until the 
next new-year's day, (A.D. 1308,) when it was their 
custom to carry a new-year's-gift to their landvogt, into 
the castle of Sarnen, they would then possess themselves 
of the castle, and, at the same time, give orders, that the 
castle of Rotzberg should be conquered the same day ; 
and, upon that day, all should be up in all three districts, 
and expel the tyrannical vogts, with their servants. This 
plan pleased all ; it was resolved, therefore, that all should 
remain secret, and nothing else should be done, if no ir- 
resistible necessity should appear ; and every man, in 
the mean time, should suffer whatever each was capa- 
ble of suffering, and should keep still, and avoid all sus- 
picion. It was moreover agreed, that, upon the break- 
ing out, neither the vogts, nor their soldiers, servants, 
nor retinue, should suffer in their lives. 

Upon this, on Sunday after Othomari,* which was the 
eighteenth of November, an honest, pious countryman of 
Un, called William Tell, (who belonged, also, to the 
league,) passed at Altdorff, several times, the hat upon 
the pole, without doing reverence, as landvogt Gessler 
had commanded. Of this, he was informed. He there- 
fore, the next day, on Monday, ordered Tell before him, 
and asked him, why he did not obey his orders, and, to 

* The day Othomari, is November the sixteenth. 



84 GREAT EVENTS. 

the dishonor of the King or himself, would not doff his 
bonnet? Tell answered, "Dear sir, it happened una- 
wares, and not from contempt : pardon me ; if I had 
wit, I were not called Tell.* I ask for pardon ; it shall 
not happen again." Now this Tell was a renowned shot 
with the crossbow ; there was hardly a better one ; and 
he had five children, who were dear to him. For these, 
the landvogt sent, and spoke : " Tell, which, among these 
children, is thy favorite ?" Tell answers, " Sir, they 
are all alike dear to me." Then, replied the landvogt ; 
" Well, then, thou art a good renowned shot, as I un- 
derstand ; thou shalt prove thine art before me, and 
shoot an apple from the head of one of thy children ; 
therefore, take care that thou hittest the apple ; for, if 
thou dost not hit it the first time, it shall cost thee thy 
life." Tell was surprised, and begged the landvogt, for 
God's sake, not to require him to do this ; because it 
was unnatural, that he should shoot against his own dear 
child ; that he would rather die. The landvogt said, 
" Thou must do it, or thou, together with thy child, must 
die." Tell saw, very well, that it was meant in earnest, 
and prayed fervently, within, to God, to protect him and 
his loved boy. Then he took his crossbow, drew it, 
placed the arrow upon it, and put another behind his 
jerkin. The landvogt himself placed the apple upon the 
head of the child, which was no older than six years. 
Tell shot the apple from off the head of the boy, and 
hurt him in no manner. When this was done, the land- 
vogt was astonished. He praised Tell, on account of 
his skill, and asked him, why he had another arrow in 
his jerkin .'' Tell was afraid, and thought the question 
was asked for no good purpose ; yet he wished to answer 
plausibly, and said : " It is the hunter's custom." The 
landvogt could perceive that Tell feared him, and said, 
" Tell ! come ! just tell me the truth, and fear nothing ; 
thy life shall be safe ; for the answer thou hast given, I will 

* Belff means, in ancient German, stupid, connected with the En- 
glish dull; Toll is still the German for crazy, insane. Tell, then, 
must have meant the stupid, which reminds us of Bnitus, whose name 
has the same signification. 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS. 85 

not accept ; there is another meaning in this." There- 
upon, William Tell said, '' Well, then, sir, since you 
have warranted my life, I will tell you the precise truth ; 
that I should have shot you with the other arrow, and, 
undoubtedly, should not have missed you." When the 
landvogt heard this, he replied : "So be it ; I have 
guarantied thy life ; my word shall be good ; but, since 
1 have seen thy malice against me, I will have thee taken 
to a place, where thou shalt lie without seeing sun or 
moon evermore ; so that I be safe against thee." He 
ordered his men to take him and carry him, tied, to 
Fliilen. He, himself, went with them, and took Toll's 
shooting tackle, — quiver, arrow, and bow, along with him ; 
he meant to keep it for himself. Thus the landvogt, his 
servants, and Tell in fetters, went into the same boat. 
They meant to go to Brunnen, whence Tell was to go, 
by land, through Schwytz, to the landvogt's castle, called 
Kussnach, to end there his life, in a dark tower. His 
bow, arrow, and other things, were placed on the board, 
near the tiller. 

When they came upon the lake, and had sailed up as 
far as Achsen, the Corner, God sent a terrible storm, that 
all of them expected miserably to be drowned. Nov; 
Tell was a strong man, well skilled upon the water ; and 
one of the servants said to the landvogt, " Sir, you see 
your and our danger and distress of life, and that the guide 
of the vessel is full of fear, and not a thorough hand at 
sailing : Tell, however, is a powerful man, and knows 
how to navigate ; we should make use of him in this dis- 
tress." The landvogt was greatly agitated by the dangers 
of the water, and spoke thus to Tell : " If thou wouldst 
save us from these perils, I would loosen thy fetters." 
Tell answered, " Yes, sir, I trust, with God's aid, to be 
able to save ourselves." He was loosened, stood at the 
rudder, and sailed honestly along ; yet he looked, all the 
time, askaunt, upon the bow and arrow, which were lying 
near him, while he was waiting for an opportunity to leap 
- out of the boat. And when he came near an even place, 
(which, since, has received the name of Tell's plateau, 
»nd a chapel has been built there,) he thought that he 
8 G. E. 



86 GREAT EVENTS. 

might leap on shore, and run away. So he cried to the 
boatmen, that they should pull well, until they were in 
front of that flat place, where they would be out of dan- 
ger. And, when he was there, he pressed the tiller with 
much power, (as he was a man of great strength,) grasp- 
ed his bow, and leaped on shore, pushing back the boat, 
and leaving them to themselves upon the waves. Tell 
ran toward the mountains, (for no snow had fallen yet,) 
through Morsath, through the land Schwytz, as far as the 
height, near the road between Art and Kussnach, where 
there is a hollow road, and copse wood above. In this, 
he lay hidden, for he knew that the landvogt would pass 
it, on horseback, to go to his castle Kussnach. 

The landvogt and his people arrived at Brunnen, after 
much toil and danger on the lake, rode through Schwytz, 
and, when they approached the mentioned hollow road. 
Tell heard sundry plans of the landvogt against him. He, 
however, had drawn his bow, and pierced the landvogt 
with an arrow, so that he fell from the horse, dead. 

Upon this, Tell ran back ; it was late, and night began 
to set in. On his flight, he informed Stauffacher, at 
Steinen, of the whole transaction, as it had happened. 
During the night, he went on toward Brunnen, where he 
was taken, by one who was likewise in the league, in a 
little boat, to Uri, where he also arrived, in the night which 
was then long. He kept himself concealed, but he in- 
formed Walter Furst and other confederates, how he had 
shot the landvogt, which was likewise communicated to 
the confederates in Unterwalden, secretly and quickly. 

At the spot of the hollow way, where William Tell 
slew the landvogt, has been since built a chapel, which 
stands to this day. It was favorable to the cause, that 
the King, at that time, was in Lower Austria, waiting 
for a proper opportunity to appoint a new landvogt. 

Anno Domini, 1308, on the new-year's day, or festi- 
val of the circumcision of Christ our Lord, the people 
of Unterwalden, who had taken the oath of the league 
already mentioned, considered how they could take the 
fastnesses of Sarnen and Rotzberg, which were very 
Strong. There was, in the castle of Rotzberg, (which is 



DELIVERY OF THE SWISS DISTRICTS. 87 

situated below the Kernwald, between Stans and Oedwil, 
upon a high hill,) a servant girl, who was betrothed to a 
man of Stans, who belonged to the league. They had 
agreed, that he should visit her in the night of new-year's 
eve, about midnight, and that she should let down, from 
her window, a cord which he showed her. The maiden 
was glad, for she loved the youth. When the night ar- 
rived, he secretly took twenty confederates with him. 
They stole to the wall of the castle, that the maiden should 
not see them. She bound the rope to the window sill, 
and let it down to the ground. The youth climbed up 
into the castle, and went with the maiden into a room, to 
converse with her, an hour or tw^o. In the mean time, 
one of the confederates, after another, climbed up the 
rope, until all were in the castle. Quickly they took the 
commander and four of his people, prisoners, together 
with the servants, kept them in the castle, and allowed 
no one to go out until noon, so that no hue and cry should 
be given, until the castle of Sarnen were likewise taken. 
But they sent immediately one of their own number se- 
cretly, to Stans, to inform the confederates, there, that 
Rotzberg was in their power, that they might quickly in- 
form the confederates above the forest. 

Now the landvogt von Landenberg, who lived in the 
castle of Sarnen, above the forest, had, by force, accus- 
tomed the people to bring him presents on new-year's day, 
one a couple of fowls, another a capon, a hare, a kid, a 
lamb, a calf, or other thing, according as every one could 
afibrd it, which they were obliged to carry into the castle. 
About fifty confederates, therefore, had resolved, that 
thirty of them should, well-armed, hide themselves, be- 
fore the break of day, under the casde, below the mill, 
in the elder- wood, and the other twenty should cut and 
sharpen sticks, so that pointed irons might be fixed to 
them, and each should carry an iron with him, in the 
bosom of his dress. These should carry the new-year's 
presents into the castle, (for no one was allowed to enter 
it with arms,) and when they were all entered, one of 
them should blow the horn. Upon this, the twenty should 
quickly fix the iron, and take possession of the gate ; and 



88 GREAT EVENTS. 

SO soon as those in the elder-wood should hear the horn, 
they should hasten up to the castle gate, to aid the oth- 
ers. Now, when the twenty men went with the presents 
to the castle, the landvogt came out, with two compan- 
ions, to go to church, for it was morning, at the time the 
people go to the church ; and, when he saw that all were 
unarmed, he was not afraid, trusting that they were bring- 
ing presents, and told them, to carry them into the castle, 
and he went on, into the church. 

Soon after, the horn was heard, and the castle was ta- 
ken, in the mentioned manner ; all the guards and other 
people were taken prisoners ; all the furniture was thrown 
out, and the castle was razed. In the same manner was 
Rotzberg destroyed. And when the landvogt heard the 
same, in the church, with his servants, they meant to take 
flight over the mountain, but could not, on account of 
the snow. They then fled toward Alpnach, down to 
Lucerne. They were seen, but allowed to proceed with- 
out molestation, as had been agreed ; so the castle-guards 
and servants of Sarnen and Rotzberg were allowed to 
draw off, with all their property, and no harm was done 
them, neither to their limbs nor property, only they were 
obliged to leave the land. And when this was done, all 
the people, noble and common, young and old, above and 
below the Kernwald, swore a mutual oath, that they 
would advise and aid one another against the tyranny. 

At the same time, those of Uri likewise cleared their 
f-ountry, and destroyed the castle which had been begun, 
which the tyrant Gessler would have called, ' Force Uri 
under the Stick ;' and there, likewise, all swore, noble 
and common, to help and protect one another. In the 
same manner, things proceeded in Schwytz. There, 
Wernherr of Stauffach, and the confederates, destroyed 
the castle of Lowers in the Lower Lake. It was not in 
good condition ; nor mounted. It had been used as a 
prison, in which to confine those who were tried for life. 
The people, there, took the same oath. All this happen- 
ed in one day, on new-year's day ; that was on a Mon- 
day, Anno Domini, 1308, as had been before agreed 
upon. 



BATTLE AT SEMPACH. 89 



THE BATTLE AT SEMPACH, IN 1386 

BY JOHANNES VON MULLER. 

John von Muller was born in 1752, at SchafFhau- 
sen, in Switzerland, and died in 1803. The first volume 
of his History of the Swiss Confederacy, from which the 
following account of the battle of Sempach has been trans- 
lated, appeared in 1780. This battle was fought on the 
ninth of July, 1386, between the confederated Swiss on 
the one side, and Austria on the other ; Austria making 
an obstinate effort to maintain her power in Switzerland 
See History of the Swiss Confederacy, Vol. ii. p. 431 



& 



The Duke, [of Austria,] leaving the Stein, at Baden, 
crossed the Riiss, and marched through the free baili- 
wicks, to Argan, and thence through Sursee, toward Sem- 
pach. This little town is situated about three leagues' 
distance from Lucerne, at the head of a lake of two 
leagues in length, bordered with fertile and picturesque 
meadows. Above the meadows, lay cornfields ; and above 
these, rose a wood. This wood was occupied by the 
troops of the confederates. 

On the ninth of July, they saw the enemy, a numerous 
force, well mounted, and in complete armor. The vas- 
sals were drawn up under their respective barons ; the 
people of each town under their avoyer ; and the compa- 
nies of every noble of the diflerent countries, each under 
the banner of its country. The Landsknechts, vassals, and 
mercenaries, served as infantry. There were no field- 
pieces ; though some heavy blunderbusses were slowly ad- 
vancing, to be used in the siege of Sempach. There were 
seen the lords of Argan, the bailifTs of Austria, authors of 
the war ; Hermann Grimm of Grunenberg, from whom 
Rotenburg had been wrested ; Thuring and John of Hall- 
wyl, zealous, above others, for the house of Austria, in 
peace and war. There were the Gesslers, cherishing an 
inborn hatred against Switzerland ; EglofFand Ulrich of 
8* 



90 GREAT EVENTS. 

Ems, the first, the noblest knight in the wars of his time , 
Kraft of Lichtenstein, with many distinguished lords from 
Inner Austria, under the banner of the arch-duchy, which 
was borne by the Lord Henry of Escheloh ; Rudolph, 
Count of Sulz ; Count John of Furstenberg ; Montfau- 
con of Mumpelgard, and many lords of Upper Burgun- 
dy. Above all the army, shone Duke Leopold of Aus- 
tria, himself, now in the thirty-fifth year of his age, and 
in the pride of manly beauty. Magnanimous, full of cour- 
age and heroic fire, and adorned with the laurels of many 
a victory, he burned with revenge, and thirsted for battle. 
It was the time of the harvest ; the Duke's people were 
reaping the corn ; the nobles galloping up to the w^alls [of 
Sempach] to taunt the burghers, with a firm resolution to 
beat the Swiss peasants with their own knightly force, un- 
aided by the infantry. When the Duke espied the enemy in 
the upland, he forgot (if, indeed, he had ever known) that 
cavalry can attack with more effect upon an ascent, than 
on a declivity ; and he believed it necessary to dispense 
with cavalry, although the nobles, encumbered with their 
heavy armor, were ill adapted to act on foot. Well- 
drilled cavalry has often, by a violent and rapid shock, 
turned the flank of bodies of foot, broken and beaten 
them ; but never has heavy-armed infantry withstood an 
attack of infantry made from higher ground. The Duke 
commanded the nobles to form in the closest order ; and 
to this strong phalanx he gave an impenetrable and terri- 
ble front by the lances, which were of such length, that 
even those of the fourth line reached the front. This 
arrangement was almost the same as that which his grand- 
father had employed, successfully, against Bavarian cav- 
alry, in the battle at the Hasenbiihel. Lord John of 
Ochsenstein, under the Duke himself, had command of 
this phalanx ; while Reinhard of Wehingen, a man well 
skilled in the affairs of peace and war, and high in favor 
of the Duke, commanded the shooters. A body of four- 
teen hundred men, commanded by Frederick of Zollern, 
the black Count, and John of Oberkirch, knight, and com- 
posing, usually, the van, was on this day placed, by the 
Duke, in the rear ; for he was anxious that the field 



BATTLE AT SEMPACII. 91 

should be clear before the infuriated nobles, whom he 
commanded in person. In thus assuming a defensive 
position, he was taking, with superior numbers, a course 
more befitting the inferior force ; but probably he was led 
to fight on foot, by an opinion of the knights and nobles 
of that age, that he who is victorious in any struggle, by 
superiority of equipments or by stratagem, leaves the 
fairest prize of valor undecided. They considered such 
advantage dishonorable ; and Leopold himself was rather 
an ornament of a gallant chivalry, through his noble vir- 
tues, than a great general, through his extensive knowledge 
of the art of war. 

When John of Plasenberg, baron, a gray-haired war- 
rior, who had seen the enemy's position and order, warn- 
ed the exasperated nobility, that "vanity leads to no good 
end, and that it would be well to send word to Hans of 
Bonstetten, that he should hasten to join them," they 
considered his sage counsel to be ignoble. So, when 
others made timely propositions to the Duke himself, and 
warned him, '' that battle-fields are the native soil of un- 
foreseen emergencies ; that it was befitting a prince, to 
watch for the general safety, and themselves, to fight for 
the common cause ; and that it would be vastly more ru- 
inous to the army to lose its head, than some of its mem- 
bers," he replied, at first, with a smile, but, at length, 
impatiently, " Shall Leopold look on, from a distance, 
and see his knights die for him ? Here, in my country, 
for my people, with you, will I conquer or perish." 

The confederates stood on the wood-covered declivity. 
So long as the knights were mounted, they believed it 
difficult to resist their shock in the plain, and safer to ex- 
pect the attack in their position, which they believed to 
be advantageous. If they were victorious, they hoped 
that the victory, by the encouragement it would afford 
the nation, would prove decisive of the whole war; death 
they considered as a path to undying glory, and as an m- 
centive to others, to avenge their loss upon the enemy. 
When the knights had dismounted, the confederates 
marched from out the wood down into the plain ; for 
they feared some stratagem, or sudden manoeuvre, ol the 



92 GREAT EVENTS. 

more numerous force, in the country sheltered by the 
wood. They stood in narrow files, with short weapons, 
(four hundred men of Lucerne, nine hundred from the 
three forest districts, and about a hundred from Glarn, 
Zug, Gersan, Endibuch, and Rotenburg,) under their re- 
spective banners, commanded by the avoyer of the town 
of Lucerne, and under the landamman of each valley. 
Some bore the halberds, with which their ancestors had 
fought at Morgarten, [December 6, 1315 ;] some had 
small boards, fastened to their left arms, instead of shields. 
To experienced warriors, their courage was apparent. 
They knelt down, and prayed to God, according to their 
ancient custom. The nobles closed their helmets ; the 
Duke created knights. The sun stood high ; the day 
was sultry. 

The Swiss, after their prayer, ran, at full speed, across 
the field, against the enemy, with loud and animating war 
cry, and in the hope to break through the hostile ranks, 
and then to fight right and left, as they best might. But 
they were received by the range of shields, as by a wall, 
and by the projecting lances, as by a forest of iron thorns. 
The main body of the men of Lucerne fought with im- 
patient fury, and strove to break a passage between the 
lances, up to those who held them. On the other hand, 
the enemy, with a fearful clang, moved on in wide-ex- 
tended Hues, intending to form a crescent, by which they 
thought to turn the flank of the Swiss. At this period, the 
municipal banner of Lucerne appeared, for some time, in 
peril, because Petermann of Gundoldingen, knight, avoyer 
of Lucerne, had fallen, severely wounded, and Henry of 
Moos, late avoyer, and Stephen of SiUinen, lord of Silli- 
nen, and Kussnacht, his brother-in-law, had perished, with 
many other brave men. Then Antony of Port, a native 
of Milan, but residing at Fliielen, in the country of Uri, 
cried, with a loud voice, " Strike at the shafts, for they 
are hollow." This, the foremost rank did, with great and 
powerful exertions ; and some shafts were shivered, but 
were immediately replaced by those behind. Antony 
of Port fell. The hostile lines, from the nature of their 
arms, and from their want of practice, were too unwieldy 



BATTLE AT SEMPACH. 93 

to form a crescent, but, in every other respect, they stood 
unbroken and firm. Sixty Swiss had already been slain. 
They feared the sudden effect of some unperceived move- 
ment by the van-guard from the rear, or of some sur- 
prise by the troops of Bonstetten. 

This moment of delay and indecision was terminat- 
ed by a man from the country of Unterwalden, Arnold 
Strutthan of Winkelried, knight. He said to his com- 
panions, " I'll make a lane for you :" leaped from out the 
ranks, called, with a loud voice, ''take care of my wife 
and children ; faithful, dear confederates, remember my 
race ;" rushed upon the enemy, grasped some lances 
with his hands, buried them in his breast, and being a 
very tall and strong man, he pressed them with him to 
the ground, as he sank down. Instantly, his companions 
threw themselves over his body ; and all the hosts of the 
confederates, in succession, pressed on with their utmost 
force. The hues of the astonished enemy pressed one 
upon another, to receive them ; whereby, through fear, 
haste, horror, and heat, many lords, wounded in their 
armor, were suffocated ; while large bands, hastening 
from the forest, strengthened the forces of the Swiss. 

First, fell Frederick, the bastard of Brandis, a strong 
man, an implacable foe ; himself, singly, as terrible as twen- 
ty ordinary men. Near him, fell Friesshard, called the 
tall, who had vaunted, that he, alone, would stand against 
the confederates. The fortune of the day turned. The 
servants of the nobles, who were stationed near the bag- 
gage, when they saw this, mounted, to save their lives by 
flight. In the mean time, the chief banner of Austria, in 
the hand of lord Henry of Eschenloh, sunk, and Ulrich 
of Ottenburg fell upon the banner of Tyrol. The for- 
mer was saved by Ulrich of Aarburg, knight ; he held 
It aloft, and resisted bravely, yet in vain, for he fell, 
wounded, and crying, with his last breath, ' Retta, Aus- 
tria, Retta.'* Duke Leopold now broke through the 
press, and received the banner from his dying hand ; 
once more it appeared, floating above the hosts, in the 
hand of the Prince, and steeped in blood. But many a 

* Save ! Austria, save ! 



94 GREAT EVENTS. 

liegeman surrounded him, and prayed for his hfe. Al- 
ready had perished the banner of the Counts of Hapsburg, 
in the hand of lord David of Junkerberg. Thuring of 
Hallvvyl lay dead, with his bastard, and his uncle John ; 
there, fell the lords of Lichtenstein, of Morsburg, four 
brothers ; Hermann of Escheng, between his two sons ; 
Margrave Otto of Hochberg ; lord Otho of Paris, counsel- 
lor of the Duke ; Count Walleram of Thierstein ; Count 
Peter of Aarberg ; and the noble Knight Albert of Miilli- 
nen, whom the Duke greatly loved. Then Leopold, say- 
ing, " Too many a count and lord has gone with me 
to death ; let me die an honorable death with them," es- 
caped his friends, who were overwhelmed by grief and 
despair, plunged into the hostile hosts, and sought his 
death. The enemy had broken in, from all sides ; it was 
with great difficulty that the avoyers of Argan held up 
their banners. In the throng of battle, the Duke was 
struck to the ground ; but struggled eagerly to raise him- 
self, again, (encumbered, as he was, widi his heavy armor,) 
because he would not perish unrevenged. A common sol- 
dier, from Schwytz, found him in this struggle. The help- 
less Leopold exclaimed, '^ I am the Prince of Austria." 
This the man did not hear, or did not believe ; or it ap- 
peared to him, that battle levels all dignities. When the 
Duke, from the effect of his wound, had soon given up 
the ghost, Martin Malterer, who carried the banner of Frey- 
burg, chanced to perceive the body, in the Breisgau ; he 
stood appalled ; the banner dropped from his hand ; he 
threw himself upon the corpse of Leopold, that it might 
not be soiled nor mangled, by friend or enemy ; thus he 
awaited, and here found his death. At this spot, fought, 
until death, Rudolph de Harrass, lord of Schooaii, 
master of the armor to the Duke. 

The eyes of the infantry sought for the Prince, but in 
vain ; when, suddenly, the whole force of Austria betook 
themselves to flight. All the nobles cried, " Our horses ; 
bring our horses !" A distant cloud of dust indistinctly 
pointed out the road, along which, a faithless count, and, 
perhaps, Hanns of Oberkirch, had long since carried 
away the horses, in their own flight. Encumbered with 



BATTLE AT SEMPACH. 95 

heavy armor, oppressed with heat, exhausted by toil and 
thirst, nothing remained for them, but to revenge their 
Prince, and, that every one should sell his life, as dearly 
as he might, though he could not save it. Here, the no- 
ble Knight of Ems worthily ended his heroic career. 
Here, Lord Otto Truchsen, of Waldburgan, met an hon- 
orable death, and Ysni inherited complete freedom. He 
had come hither, from Ysni, his own town, in Allgan, 
and promised it entire freedom, upon his death, giving up 
all power, whatsoever, in consideration of eight thousand 
pounds of pence, which sum he required to pay his sol- 
diers. On the side of the confederates, fell Conrad, 
Landamman of Uri ; Attenghansen, Knight, Sigrist of 
Tiessebach, Landamman of the people of Unterwalden, 
above the Kernwald, and Conrad Griininger, of Claris, a 
brave man, (in honor of whom the men of Schwytz gave 
the privilege of citizenship to his son.) In the mean 
time, Petermann of Gundoldingen, pierced with many 
wounds, was bleeding to death ; one of the men of Lu- 
cerne hastened to the place where he was dying, to re- 
ceive his last will ; the avoyer, far from having a thought 
of his private affairs, gave this answer : " Tell our fellow 
citizens, that they shall never allow an avoyer to remain 
longer than a year in office ; that this is the advice of 
Gundoldingen, and that he wishes them a happy govern- 
ment and victory." With these words, he breathed his 
last. 

Of the enemy, moreover, fell the Lord of Hasenburg, 
not saved by having foreseen disaster; and, with him, John 
of Ochsenstein, who had derided his prudence ; Siegfried, 
of the house of Erloch, who was not permitted to fight, 
successfully, against liberty ; three of the name of Hen- 
dorf, and Albert of Hohenrechberg, whose hatred against 
the victors descended to his great-grandchildren. Gott- 
fried Miiller fell, also, Burkard Gessner, of Breisach, 
Hatstatt, Rathsamhausen, three of the name of Berenfels, 
and Flachsland ; and some, also, of the Italian nobility, 
Castelnan, Hanns of Vauxmarcus, and Richard of Mum- 
pelgard. A man of Gersau, seeing the banner of Ho- 
henzollern floating, hastened and carried away this glorious 



96 GREAT EVENTS. 

prize. All the lords of the house of Rheinach met 
death, together ; the youthful Hemmann alone remaining, 
to continue (like Quintus Fabius*) that ancient family. 
Hemmann, when the knights dismounted, and cut the 
long points from their shoes, had wounded himself in his 
too great haste, and, full of discontent, had been carried 
behind the lines. The municipal banner of Schaffhausen 
was at length lost, which had been successively borne and 
defended by Drethelm, Knight, avoyer of the town, by 
Hanns of Randegh, bailiff of the Duke, by the nobles 
Ini-Thurm, by two of the name of Stokar, by Hanns of 
Tulach, (till now, the happy father often children,) and 
by twenty-eight other nobles or burghers, by all of them 
until death. The avoyer of Aaran fell, with fourteen of 
his fellow-citizens ; Werner of Lo, banner-master, with 
seven others of Lenzburg. The people of Mellingen, of 
their own accord, and with honest purpose, had sent thanks 
to the unfortunate Prince, for the privileges, granted in 
order to assist them, after a destructive fire. The burgh- 
ers of Bremgarten w^ere terribly embrued with the ene- 
my's blood, so that the house of Austria has commemo- 
rated such faithfulness by a change of the municipal col- 
ors. f After twelve other men of Zofingen, fell also their 
avoyer, Nicholas Gutt, regardless of his own death, but 
much concerned about the banner which the citizens of 
Zofingen had confided to his hand. That no hostile com- 
munity should have reason to boast of its possession, 
he tore it into pieces, and was found among the dead, 
the staff fast locked between his teeth. From that time, 
the citizens made their avoyers swear, " to guard the town 
banner, even as did the avoyer, Nicholas Gutt." The 
number of counts, lords, and knights, who perished, v/as 
six hundred and fifty-six ; so that the brilliancy of the 
princely Courts was extinguished for many years, and 
the inhabitants of the country said, that God had sat in 

* The Family of the Fabii was a celebrated one in ancien Rome. 
At the battle of Cremera, B. C. 476, all of the Fabii were cut off, ex- 
cept Q,uintus Fabius. 

t Austria gave the magistrates a white gown with red sleeves, with 
the same colors in other parts of the dress. 



BATTLE AT SEMPACH. 97 

judgement upon the arrogant spite of the nobles. After 
the fall of nearly all the officers, on both sides, the wrath 
of the victors was at length overcome, by their bloody 
toil, and the heat of the day ; and the Austrians, undis- 
turbed, indulged the desire of life, but the Swiss, seeing 
themselves masters of the field, the desire of booty. 
Such is the end of the great day of the battle at Sempach, 
in which Arnold Strutthan, of Winkelried, at the price 
of his own life, saved the flower of the Swiss from death, 
and his country from extreme danger. The enemy, in- 
deed, suffered from their awkward and unskilful order of 
battle, their want of practice in fighting on foot ; their 
ignorant contempt of their adversary ; and the impetuous 
character of chivalric valor. Our fathers knew the 
country, and made use of the advantages, which Swit- 
zerland, to this day, offers, in a thousand ways. They 
were inferior, it is true, in some points of drilling ; their 
mode of warfare was, as were their souls, simple, great, 
and strong ; were they checked in their course by the 
enemy's discipline, some extraordinary deed, as that at 
Sempach, aided them ; some deed suggested by their 
heroic souls, and executed by their sound bodies. With 
a mind like that of Winkelried, and with such infantry, 
miracles of bravery would have been performed, even if 
the object had been to capture well-served artillery, or to 
run under its fire. For all arms, of whatever form, may 
be over-mastered, by a clear intellect and unconquerable 
souls. Therefore, according to the opinions of excellent 
soldiers of our own times, the result of a struggle in de- 
fence of our liberty and confederacy, would not be differ- 
ent, if only our souls are still the same. 

That same day, the message of the country's salva- 
tion was sent to Zurich, Bern, Zug, and Glaris. The day 
after the battle, when a troop of fugitives had been over- 
taken, and put to the sword in Sursee, the Swiss granted 
an armistice, for burying the dead. The body of the 
Prince, with those of sixty lords and knights, were car- 
ried into the convent of Konigsfelden ; he was deposited 
in the marble tomb, where rests Queen Agnes, and others 
of the house. The lords of Aargan were laid in the 

9 G. E. 



98 GREAT EVENTS. 

graves of their ancestors ; all the rest were interred in 
large fosses ; two hundred bodies of the confederates were 
buried at Lucerne. A perpetual anniversary, for all 
future ages, was appointed, for the rest of the souls of all 
that had fallen on that day, without distinction, whether 
friends or foes. Winkelried is justly held in high honor 
by his people, to this day. It is for all nations and their 
historians to show, that such a hero becomes immortal at 
the moment of his glorious death ; and that all good citi- 
zens, fathers, or brothers, become his true descendants. 
The victors, after they had tarried for three days on the 
battle-field, according to ancient custom, dispersed, bear- 
ing as trophies fifteen conquered banners, and returned to 
their towns and villages, celebrating their achievement 



DEATH OF HUSS. 99 



DEATH OF HUSS, A. D. 1415. 

The following account is taken from the work of Zach- 
araeus Theobald, entitled, ' The War of the Hussites, 
wherein is comprehended the Life, Doctrine, and Death, 
of John Huss ; also, how the same was avenged by the Bo- 
hemians, especially by John Zishka, and his Doctrine af- 
terwards established in the Kingdom, [Bohemia.] The 
wiiole diligently collected from credible Historians, ancient 
Monuments, and Manuscripts. Nuremberg, 1621.' The 
first volume of this work had appeared as early as 1610, 
under the title of 'The War of the Hussites,' the second 
edition of which volume formed a part of the entire work, 
whose title is given above. Zacharaeus Theobald was born 
in 1584, at Schlackenwalde, in Bohemia, studied divinity, 
and became a village pastor. He had been appointed pro- 
fessor of mathematics, probably in the university of Prague, 
but died in 1627, before entering on the duties of the of- 
fice. He was the author of various works. In the preface 
to the above history, he says, that he has undertaken the 
work, because there was not any full and accurate history 
of the war of the Hussites, in the German language. He 
mentions the authorities consulted by him, and states, that 
he has taken the facts in the Life of Huss, from the ac- 
count of M. Petras de Mladonowiz, an eyewitness, who 
had then been regarded as a standard authority in Bohemia, 
for two hundred years. 

John Huss was born in Bohemia, in the year 1373. He 
studied at Prague ; and, in 1402, received an appointment 
as pastor, having previously delivered philosophical and 
theological lectures. He made the writings of Wiclif and 
the Scriptures, his peculiar study. During the violent dis- 
turbances and schisms, which then agitated the Church, 
Huss took part with the anti-papal party. He attacked the 
licentiousness of the priests, preached against the sale of 
indulgences, masses for the dead, auricular confession, and 
the withholding of the cup from the laity in the Lord's Sup- 
per, while he relied upon the Bible, as supreme authority. 
He was cited to appear at Rome, but did not obey the sum- 
mons in person When the council of Constance was 



100 GREAT EVENTS. 

held, in order to settle the great disturbances in the Church, 

the German Emperor Sigismund became responsible for 
his personal safety, that is, he promised him a safecon- 
duct, and Pope John XXIII. made promises to the same 
effect, after the arrival of Huss at Constance. Notwith- 
standing this, he was imprisoned, in spite of the reiterated 
remonstrances of the Bohemian and Moravian nobles, and 
was denied an advocate. After several examinations, he 
was sentenced to death by the assembled council, in 1415. 
When Huss reminded the Emperor of his promise of safe- 
conduct, Sigismund blushed ; but even so solemn a prom- 
ise was not considered binding, in the case of a heretic, and 
Huss was burnt the same day, (July 6,) upon which he 
was sentenced. Even his enemies speak with admiration 
of his unblemished virtue, his modest demeanor, and un- 
shaken fortitude in the hour of death. 

When the writer of these lines, many years ago, was at 
Constance, in Switzerland, he paid a visit to the Roman 
Catholic Bishop of that place, and, with him, visited the 
spot, pointed out as the place where Huss perished. The 
Protestant and the Roman Catholic visiters fully agreed 
respecting the unhappy temper of former times, which dic- 
tated these sacrifices, so contrary to the spirit of the Chris- 
tian religion. It ought to be mentioned, that the Catholic 
Church, especially the Romanist portion, does not acknowl- 
edge the council of Constance as oecumenic ; that is, its 
decrees are not binding upon the Church, although it was 
one of the most solemn and numerous councils ever assem- 
bled, because it revived the principle, that a general coun- 
cil is superior to the Pope, and may even depose him. 

The following passage is taken from the first volume of 
Theobald's War of the Hussites, Chapter XX. 

On July the sixth, (some have written, erroneously, 
June the sixth,) the final examination of John Huss took 
place, in the following manner : Two hours after the 
break of day, the Bishop of Riga went, with many men, 
armed with pikes, swords, and lances, to the convent of 
the Minorites, ordered Huss to be taken from his prison, 
and led him to the cathedral, where the cardinals, bish- 
ops, prelates, priests, monks, and many of the common 
people who wished to be spectators, were assembled. 
When they arrived before the church, he ordered Huss 



DEATH OF HUSS. 101 

to remain in the yard, that the mass might not be dese- 
crated by the presence of a heretic. When mass had 
been read, he was brought in, before the assembled multi- 
tudes, who were seated in swarms, on high scaffolds, that 
had been built along the walls. The Emperor himself 
sat under the golden crown, upon a royal chair. Near 
him, the Duke of Bavaria held the orb with the cross. 
On the other side, stood the burgrave of Nuremberg, with 
a naked sword. In the centre of the church, was erect- 
ed a pretty high table, upon which, lay the vestments 
used in the mass. In these, they ignominiously arrayed 
Huss, and placed him before the table. He knelt dowu, 
and prayed for a long time. In the mean time, Bishop 
Landinns, otherwise called the monk, ascended the pul- 
pit, from which they* used to read their decrees, and 
preached a long sermon upon a passage from the sixth 
chapter of the apostle Paul to the Romans, where he 
says, " What shall we say, then ? Shall we continue in 
sin .'*" In this sermon, he taught, at length, what injury 
is done by heresy, how it destroys the church of Christ, 
entices the people from Christ, and leads them into the 
mouth of the devil. He also said, that "it is right for 
the secular magistrate to suppress it, and to destroy those 
with whom it originates. For such heretics are much 
worse than a tyrant, however wicked even he may be. 
Therefore, it is just," added he, " and the duty of your 
imperial majesty, most invincible Emperor, to execute 
this stiff-necked heretic, since he is in our hands, and thus 
shall your majesty attain an immortal name, with old and 
young, so long as the world shall stand, for performing a 
deed so glorious, and so pleasing unto God." 

When he had finished, another, named Henricus, ora- 
tor of the council, ascended the pulpit, and exhorted the 
assembled council, that they should weigh the matter well, 
and not rest nor yield, until they had burnt the sturdy 
heretic, for continuing so stiff-necked in his damnable er- 
ror. After this, rose a bishop, and went to the desk, 
upon which they usually read their decrees. He recount- 

* The assembled clergy. 



102 GREAT EVENTS. 

ed the difficulties which Huss had had with the archbishop 
of Prague and the lords of the chapter. He Hkewise 
read an account of every thing which they had done, in 
relation to Huss. At length, all the charges made against 
him by the witnesses, and things of hke nature, were read. 
But when they read, " Huss teaches, there is a holy 
catholic church, which is a community of all the faithful, 
ordained by God for eternal life, which is heretical," 
Huss answered, with a loud voice, " I do not in the least 
doubt, that there is a holy Christian church, which is a 
community of the elect, both in this and the other world." 
Upon this, the cardinal von Cammerach says, ''Hold 
your tongue ; after all has been read, you may answer." 
" What," says Huss, '' will you tie my mouth, even now.'' 
How can I answer to all these charges, so numerous, that 
I cannot remember them r" When another charge had 
been read, and he attempted to answer it, the bishop of 
Florence (who was one of the judges) said, " Silence ! 
neretic," and ordered the sergeant to force Huss to keep 
silence. Then Huss Hfted his hands toward heaven, and 
said, with a clear voice, " I beg you, for the mercy of 
God, at least to hear me, for the sake of those who stand 
around, that I may exculpate myself, and remove suspi- 
cion from their hearts. Then, you may do with me, as 
you list." Finding he could not obtain a hearing, he Ml 
upon his knees, lifted his eyes and hands toward heaven, 
and commended his cause to God. This he did, repeat- 
edly, while they continued to read. When they went on 
to read what the witnesses had deposed, they handled it 
after a most cruel and pitiable fashion, so that no one could 
know who had testified to this or that charge. For in- 
stance : when they had read an article, they added, " this 
was heard by two canons at Prague, two priests, a chap- 
lain, and a doctor." Huss was silent, until they came to 
the passage, — " Huss has taught, that, after the words of 
consecration have been pronounced over the bread, it re- 
mains natural and essential bread, which is heretical. 
Item, that a priest, polluted with deadly sins, cannot ad- 
minister the sacrament of the altar, which is heretical." 
Thereupon Huss could restrain himself no longer ; and 



DEATH OF HUSS. 103 

attempted to answer. The cardinal of Florence bade 
him be silent, which Huss would not do, but said, " I 
pray you, for the sake of God, let me but speak, on ac- 
count of those who are here assembled, that they may not 
believe, I have taught such things. For, first, I do not 
confess that I have believed, still less have I preached, 
that the consecrated bread is common natural bread. 
Secondly, I say, that every act of a priest, laden with 
deadly sins, is an abomination in the sight of God." When 
they read the following, — " Huss has taught, that there 
are four persons in the Godhead. This was heard by a 
certain doctor, and is heretical," — Huss said, " Name the 
doctor." This, the bishop, who was reading, refused to 
do, saying, " There is no need of it, now." Whereupon 
Huss exclaimed, " Far be it from me, a poor miserable 
creature, to add a fourth person to the Holy Trinity. 
Such a thing has never entered my mind, in all the course 
of my life, God knows. Still less have I preached it ; — 
/ who have always confessed one Divine Being in three 
persons, — God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy 
Ghost, and will die in that faith." Then they added, to 
the previous articles : '' Huss has appealed, in many ca- 
ses, to the throne of God, which is heretical." Huss 
cried, " See, O Lord Christ ! This council holds thy 
law and ordinance to be heretical, who thyself, when 
overcome by thy enemies, didst commend thy cause to 
thy heavenly Father, the just Judge, leaving an example 
to us, poor, miserable men, that, in our crosses and mis- 
eries, we should flee even unto Thee, as to a just Judge, 
devoutly seeking help. I, however, do say, that the safest 
and most certain appeal is, to the Lord Jesus, whom no 
one can bribe with gifts, nor deceive with false witnesses, 
from whom no one can escape by cunning, and who alone 
shall deal out just reward." Lastly, they condemned 
him, because he had contemned the Pope's excommuni- 
cation. Upon this, Huss replied, "I have in no wise 
contemned him, but openly appealed to him, as to a judge. 
Moreover, three times have I sent to the Pope, men who 
should answer in my behalf; for, on account of most 
weighty matters, it was impossible for me to appear, my- 



104 GREAT EVENTS. 

self. It is most notorious, that these persons have not 
been very fairly dealt with. Some of them have been 
thrown into prison, some were not listened to, and others, 
again, have met with ill treatment* of a different kind. 
Therefore, have I come, betimes, to this council, with a 
free safeconduct from the Roman emperor, who is now 
present, in the full confidence, that no violence should be 
done me, that I might prove my innocence." As he 
said this, he looked straight into the face of the Emperor, 
who blushed, till his face became crimson. 

When he had concluded, the papal judge, an old man 
somewhat bald, an Italian, arose, and read the sentence 
passed upon Huss. Several points of these charges, Huss 
intended to deny and disprove ; and certainly would have 
done so, had the sergeants not prevented him. But when 
he was accused of obstinately persevering in his errors, 
for years, Huss said, " I do not confess to this charge, 
for 1 have always desired, and do so still, this day, to be 
informed and corrected by stronger proof from the Scrip- 
ture ; and, if, by the will of God, there is a single word 
in the Holy Scripture, that can prove me in the wrong, 
willingly would I recant." When they ordered his Books 
of the Christian Church, with all his other works, in Latin 
and Bohemian, and those which had been translated by 
other persons into other languages, at Constance or other 
places, to be burnt, Huss said, " How can you justly 
condemn my books, since I have, at all times, desired to 
be better informed. But this I have never yet been ; nor 
has one word that I have written yet been proved false. 
Still further, why shall my books be annihilated by your 
ordinance, you who have never seen them, or if you have 
seen them, do not understand them, because you do not 
know the Bohemian language." After he had thus said, 
and they proceeded with the sentence, he knelt down, 
looked up to heaven, and prayed thus : " Lord God, I 
fervently supplicate that, in thy endless mercy, Thou wilt 
pardon these my enemies ; for Thou knowest well, that 
I have been falsely accused, by false witnesses, of ficti- 
tious errors, and have been unfairly sentenced. There- 
fore, I pray Thee, of thine unspeakable mercy, that Thou 



DEATH OF HUSS. 105 

wilt not lay it to their charge." When he had said this, 
aloud, the priests, especially the bishops, eyed him with 
a malignant and scornful smile. By the order of the 
seven bishops, appointed to degrade him, he put on the 
vestments used in the mass, as though he were about to 
read mass. When he put on the alba, he thus spoke : 
" My master, Christ, when he was sent from Herod to 
Pilate, was likewise arrayed in a white garment, and mock- 
ed by the priests." When he had put on all these vest- 
ments, the bishops exhorted him to confess, before it was 
too late, to recant, and abjure his errors. 

But he turned to the people, and, with tears, thus ad- 
dressed them : " Behold, the bishops exhort me to ab- 
jure my errors ; but I fear to do so, lest I should be found 
a liar, before the face of God. He, who falsely confesses 
himself to be in error, violates his conscience and Divine 
truth. I have never taught such doctrines as hav^e been 
laid to my charge by false witnesses. Further, I dare 
not do it, lest I should offend the pious hearts of the hear- 
ers whom I have taught, and lead them, and other faithful 
servants of the word, astray from the truth." When he 
had finished, the bishops and all the priests exclaimed, 
together : " Now we see how stiff-necked he is, in his 
wickedness, and obdurate, in heresy. Get down from the 
table ! get down !" When he had descended, the bish- 
ops began to degrade him, in the following manner : They 
first took from him the chalice, saying, ••' O ! thou cursed 
Judas ! who didst forsake the counsels of peace, and join 
thyself with Jews, behold, we take from thee this chalice, 
in which the blood of Christ is offered up for the remis- 
sion of sins." But Huss replied, " Confiding in my God 
and Saviour, I indulge the hope, that He will not take from 
me the cup of salvation, and trust, that, through his grace, 
I shall drink of it, this day, in his kingdom." They 
proceeded to take from him the other articles, one after 
another, and, as each was removed, they pronounced a 
curse. Upon this, Huss said, " I suffer this, willingly, 
for the truth and the name of the Lord Jesus Christ." 
x\t length, when he was stripped of all the vestments used 
in performing the mass, they were proceeding to desecrate 



106 GREAT EVENTS. 

the spot on his head. As they were about to do so, a 
dispute arose among the bishops and priests. For some 
would do it with a razor ; others said, it might be done, 
as well, with the scissors. Whilst they were thus warmly 
disputing, Huss turned to the Emperor, and said : " Lo ! 
the bishops cannot agree in their mockery of me." But 
when, at length, they had decided upon it, they made a 
cross on his head with the scissors, and said, " The holy 
council of Constance expels John Huss from the holy 
and magnificent order of priests, to which he has belong- 
ed, and thus indicates, that he has severed himself from 
the Christian church, and that henceforth he is not subject 
to the ecclesiastical, but to the secular, power." Before 
placing the paper crown upon his head, they said, " We 
commend thy soul to the devils." Huss folded his hands, 
looked upwards, and said, " Well, then, I commend it 
to my Lord Jesus Christ." On seeing the crown, he 
said, " My Lord Jesus Christ has worn for me, poor, 
sinful man, a heavier crown of thorns, and even suffered 
an ignominious death on the cross. Therefore, I, a poor 
sinner, willingly wear this, which is much lighter, although 
it has been made to deride me." This crown was about 
half an ell long, and formed like a haystack ; on it, were 
painted three large, horrid devils, and it bore this super- 
scription : *' This is a heretic." Soon after this, the 
Emperor said to Duke Lewis, " Go, and give him over 
to the beadles." The Duke stepped aside, took off the 
princely mantle which he wore when in attendance upon 
the Emperor, handed him over to the officers, and accom- 
panied him to the place where he was burned. 

It is recorded, that the Emperor's chancellor. Count 
Caspar SchHck, as soon as he heard the sentence, left 
the church, and openly protested, that he could not, with 
a good conscience, be present at the execution of so hasty 
a sentence. He was a learned, wise man, and of great 
understanding. He was chancellor to three successive 
kings ; (a circumstance at which Sylvius expresses his 
surprise ;) and met with no reverses of fortune, but was 
invested by all these sovereigns with the government of 
wealthy cities, such as Passau, Weissenkirchen, (from 



^ DEATH OF ilUSS. 107 

which the counts of Schlick have, to this day, their title,) 
Elnbogen, and Gratz in Styria. 

When the condemned Huss, with his crown of paper, 
was led by the hangman from the church to the fagot, 
his spirits rose ; and it is testified of him, even by his 
enemies, as well as his friends, by M. Hieronymus, 
and especially, Sylvius, (who afterwards became Pope,) 
that he seemed as though he were going to a gladsome 
meal, or, as the vulgar saying is, to a dance. But, when 
he saw his books burning in the churchyard, he stopped, 
and smiled. As he passed along, he exhorted the people 
" not to believe that he was going to be burnt for his er 
rors ; for, that some articles were charged against him, 
on the false testimony of his deadly enemies, although he 
had never taught them ; that others had never been proved 
to be false, although he had urgently requested it." But 
the people who went along with him, were all armed, 
especially the burghers, who had been called upon to at- 
tend. When they arrived at the place where he was to be 
burnt, Huss fell upon his knees, clasped his hands, which 
were not tied, looked towards heaven, and repeated the 
thirtieth and fiftieth Psalms of David. And he especially 
repeated many times the verse, " Into thy hands I com- 
mend my spirit ; Thou hast delivered it, faithful God !" 
When some of the common people heard this, they said, 
" What this man has previously taught or preached, we 
know not ; but, now, we hear none but holy words from 
his lips." Others said, " He ought to have a confes- 
sor." But a fat priest, clad in a green gown, with a red 
lining, rode along, saying, '' They shall not hear the her- 
etic, and there is no need of a confessor." But Huss had 
confessed, seven days previously, to a monk, who had 
been allowed him by the council, and who absolved him. 
The crown, which had fallen from the head of Huss, 
while praying, was put on again, at which he smiled. 
They said, " The devils should be burnt along with the 
devils' servant." When, by order of the executioner, he 
stood upright, he began to pray thus, in a loud voice : 
" Lord Jesus Christ, I will cheerfully sufter this fearful 
ana shameful death, for the sake of thy holy gospel and 



108 GREAT EVENTS. 

thy Divine word ; O ! forgive my enemies for this sin." 
The executioner then led him about, to bless the people,* 
whom he earnestly begged "not to believe that he had 
taught any thing contrary to the word of God." Lastly, 
he begged to speak once more to those who had been his 
keepers, when he was in prison ; and when he came to 
them, he said, ''Dear brethren, I give you many thanks for 
the favors which you have bestowed upon me, during my 
long imprisonment. You have not been my keepers, but 
brethren ; and I declare to you, that I faithfully believe I 
shall reign this day with my Lord and Saviour, for whose 
name I suffer this death." He then advanced, cheerfully, 
and without one sign of fear, to the stake, which had been 
planted in the ground, to which the executioner bound 
him with six ropes, his arms being tied behind his back. 
But, in doing this, the executioners had made a mistake ; 
for they had placed his face toward the east, and they 
were obliged to turn him, being a heretic, towards the 
west. Around his neck they placed an old rusty chain, 
as though he were unworthy of a new one : when Huss 
saw this, he said, with a smile, " My Lord Christ was 
bound for me, with a far heavier chain. Why should I 
be ashamed to be bound with so old and rusty a one .'^" 
Under his feet, on which his boots still remained, and the 
fetters also, they placed two fagots, and around him, much 
wood, and straw, and branches, as high as his neck. But 
before the executioners lighted it, Duke Lewis of Ba- 
varia, with the marshal of some imperial city by his side, 
rode up to him, and exhorted him to renounce his errors, 
(as they thought them,) and to abjure his doctrines. Then 
Huss cried, with a clear voice, from the stake, " I call 
God to witness, that I have not taught nor written what 
false witnesses have laid to my charge ; but that the aim 
of all my sermons, doctrines, and writings, has been, to 
turn the people from their sins, and lead them to the 
kingdom of God. This truth, which I have taught, 

* This means, I believe, to bid them farewell, because one of the 
common forms of doing so is, " God bless you ;" hence, blessing, for 
wishing this blessing. Otherwise, the text would contain a contradic- 
tion, since a heretic and outcast priest could not bless the people. 



DEATH OF HUSS. 109 

preached, written, and diffused, and which agrees with 
the word of. God, I will keep, and seal with my death." 
When they heard this, they clasped their hands together, 
and rode off. Soon after, the executioners lighted the 
fire, which caught quickly, because there was much straw 
between the wood. When Huss saw the smoke, he sang, 
in a clear voice, " Christ, Son of God, have mercy 
upon me." But when he was about to say, the third 
time, "Christ, son of God, born of a pure Virgin," the 
flame reached his face, and deprived him of speech, so 
that he could not pronounce, " Have mercy upon me ;" 
but he prayed, and nodded with his head, as long as 
it takes one to repeat the Lord's prayer, upon which he 
died. When the wood was burnt, but the body, not en- 
tirely consumed, yet hung upon the stake, the execution- 
ers pushed it down with poles, and threw more wood 
upon it. They then broke the bones with the poles, that 
they might burn the sooner. The head, too, they beat 
to pieces ; but the heart, which was found among the 
entrails, they put on the end of a pointed pole, and roast- 
ed it. 

When Duke Lewis was informed that one of the exe- 
cutioners had the cloak, girdle, and other articles of cloth- 
ing, belonging to Huss, he ordered them " to burn every 
thing, or" (as certainly would have happened,) " the 
Bohemians would keep them, as rehcs." The execu- 
tioner, at first, refused ; but, when a stipulated sum of 
money was promised him, he threw every thing into the 
fire. At length, when every thing was consumed, they 
put the ashes, together with the earth, which they dug out 
to the depth of some feet, upon a cart, and threw it into 
the Rhine. The place, where this happened, is between 
the gardens of the suburb, by the road leading to Gottle- 
ben. Some, who have been at the place, say, that, to 
this day, no grass will grow on the spot. Whether this 
be true, I know not. 

Before Huss suffered, the Council had wreaked a tar- 
dy vengeance on his forerunner and preceptor, Wiclif, 
whose body was ordered '* to be taken from the ground, 
10 G. E, 



110 GREAT EVENTS. 

and thrown far away from the burial of any church." 
After the lapse of thh'teen years, the sentence was exe- 
cuted, by disinterring and burning the Reformer's body, 
and casting the ashes into a neighboring brook. The 
often quoted words of Fuller, on this occasion, may be 
equally well applied to the good man, whose history has 
just been related : " The brook did convey his ashes 
into Avon ; Avon into Severn ; Severn into the narrow 
seas ; they into the main ocean. And thus, the ashes 
of Wiclif are the emblem of his doctrine, which now is 
dispersed all the world over." 

Jerome of Prague has been already mentioned, as the 
most distinguished among Huss's followers, and his coad- 
jutor in preaching. He was summoned to Constance, in 
the Spring of 1415, before Huss had suffered martyr- 
dom ; and it was probably in consequence of witnessing 
his companion's sufferings, that he was induced to retract, 
to condemn, in the strongest terms, as blasphemous and 
seditious, the tenets which, in his heart, he still continued 
to hold, and to profess his entire adherence to all the doc- 
trines of the Roman Church. Fortunately, he was not 
left to endure, through life, the reproaches of conscience ; 
for the continued enmity and mistaken persecution of his 
adversaries conferred a benefit on him, which they were 
far from intending. He was still retained in confinement, 
and harassed with fresh charges, though his retractation 
had been ample and complete. At last, he obtained a 
public audience before the Council, on the twenty-third of 
May, 1416 ; when he recalled his former recantation, con- 
fessing that it had been dictated only by the fear of a pain- 
ful death. Poggio, the Florentine, who was a witness of 
the whole course of Jerome's trial, has left a long and 
interesting account of it, in a letter to Leonardo Aretino ; 
from which, it appears that his sympathy had been strong- 
ly excited, by the constancy of the sufferer. Though 
connected with the highest dignitaries of the Church, he 
writes in such a strain of admiration, that his friend thought 
it necessary to warn him of the danger which he might 
incur, by speaking of a condemned heretic in ?uch terms. 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. Ill 

THE CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 

BY GIBBON. 

Edward Gibbon was born in 1737, at Putney, in Eng- 
land, and died in 1794. The biography of this great his- 
torian, of the Decline and final Fall of the Roman Empire, 
may be found in so many works, accessible to every one, 
and in a form so much more complete than it would be pos- 
sible to give it here, that readers will not expect from us, 
even a hasty outline. Whatever Gibbon's faults may be, 
for instance, his peculiar skepticism, still his work is a 
truly-great one ; and I may be permitted to repeat, here, 
what 1 have stated in another place, at great length, that 
few works are more instructive to a reflecting man. For 
it shows the protracted disease and corruption of an em- 
pire ; the anatomy of a body politic laid bare ; and is full 
of warning to every one, disposed to heed the grave lessons 
furnished by that period. 

The Byzantine empire had gradually dwindled in extent, 
as well as internal power, so that nothing could restore its 
vigor. The Greeks had become grossly corrupt, in morals 
and politics, and had given themselves up to the most 
wayward folly, in religion, while they still were puffed up by 
the recollection of former grandeur and early civilization. 
Degenerated, as they were, in almost every respect, and 
to so frightful a degree, nothing, according to the experi- 
ence we derive from history, could resuscitate that coun- 
try and establish a better order of things, but a total re- 
generation, by a fresh admixture from foreign nations, — a 
conquest by a better race. Such was not their fate. An 
Asiatic race, which, out of the many tribes which profess 
Islamism, is one of those least susceptible of civilization, — 
the Turks, — were the conquerors of this tottering empire. 
Nor is this the only melancholy reflection which forces it- 
self upon our mind, in regarding this conquest. It happen- 
ed, in this case, as in so many others recorded in history, 
that those, who would have been worthy of better days, and 
who would not have caused or promoted the general de- 
generacy, were nevertheless often obliged to bear its fright- 
ful consequences, and the ultimate ruin brought on by it. 



112 GREAT E^ ENTS. 

Thus, too, Louis the Sixteenth, a better man than either 
of his three predecessors, was destined to mount the scaf- 
fold, mainly in consequence of their vicious government. 

At present, centuries after the conquest of Constantino- 
ple in 1453, our mind is relieved by the consideration, that 
the very barbarity of the victorious Turks, at that time, 
was attended with some advantageous consequences. Many 
learned Greeks, inheriting a large share of the civilization 
of their forefathers, emigrated to the west of Europe, (for 
instance, to Florence,) where they rekindled an ardor for 
the study of the ancients, gave an impulse to the revival 
of letters, dilffused a new taste, and awakened a spirit of 
sound criticism ; in short, contributed, most powerfully, to 
the preparation of the European mind for that great event, 
the Reformation. 

While Mohammed* threatened the capital of the 
East, the Greek Emperor implored, with fervent prayers, 
the assistance of earth and Heaven. But the invisible 
powers were deaf to his supplications ; and Christendom 
beheld, with indifference, the fall of Constantinople, while 
she derived, at least, some promise of supply from the 
jealous and temporal policy of the Sukan of Egypt. 
Some states were too weak, and others too remote ; by 
some, the danger was considered as imaginary ; by oth- 
ers, as inevitable : the western princes were involved in 
their endless and domestic quarrels ; and the Roman 
Pontiff was exasperated by the falsehood or obstinacy of 
the Greeks. Instead of employing, in their favor, the 
arms and treasures of Italy, Nicholas the Fifth had fore- 
told their approaching ruin, and his honor was engaged in 
the accomplishment of his prophecy. Perhaps he was 
softened by the last extremity of their distress ; but his 
compassion was tardy ; his efforts were faint and unavail- 
ing ; and Constantinople had fallen, before the squadron* 
of Genoa and Venice could sail from their harbors. Eve*» 
the princes of the Morea and of the Greek islands affect- 
ed a cold neutrality ; the Genoese colony of Galata ne 
gotiated a private treaty ; and the Sultan indulged them 

* Mohammed II., Sultan of the Turks, who began to reign, A. D 
1451. The siege of Constantinople began, April 6, A. D. 1453. 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 113 

in the delusive hope, that, by his clemency, they might 
survive the ruin of the Empire. A plebeian crowd, and 
some Byzantine nobles, basely withdrew from the danger 
of their country ; and the avarice of the rich denied the 
Emperor, and reserved for the Turks, the secret treasures 
which might have raised in their defence whole armies 
of mercenaries. 

The indigent and solitary prince prepared, however, 
to sustain his formidable adversary ; but, if his courage 
was equal to the peril, his strength was inadequate to the 
contest. In the beginning of the Spring, the Turkish 
vanguard swept the towns and villages, as far as the gates 
of Constantinople : submission was spared and protect- 
ed ; whatever presumed to resist, was exterminated with 
fire and sword. The Greek places on the Black Sea, 
Mesembria, Acheloum, and Bizon, surrendered, on the 
first summons ; Selybria, alone, deserved the honors of a 
siege or blockade ; and the bold mhabitants, while they 
were invested by land, launched their boats, pillaged the 
opposite coast of Cyzicus, and sold their captives in the 
public market. But on the approach of Mohammed, 
himself, all was silent and prostrate : he first halted at the 
distance of five miles ; and from thence advancing, in bat- 
tle array, planted before the gate of St. Romanus the Im- 
perial standard ; and, on the sixth day of April, formed 
the memorable siege of Constantinople. 

The troops of Asia and Europe extended, on the right 
and left, from the Propontis to the harbor ; the Janizaries 
in the front were stationed before the Sultan's tent ; the 
Ottoman line was covered by a deep intrenchment ; and 
a subordinate army enclosed the suburb of Galata, and 
watched the doubtful faith of the Genoese. The inquis- 
itive Philelphus, who resided in Greece, about thirty 
years before the siege, is confident, that all the Turkish 
forces, of any name or value, could not exceed the num- 
ber of sixty thousand horse, and twenty thousand foot ; 
and he upbraids the pusillanimity of the nations, who had 
tamely yielded to a handful of barbarians. Such, indeed, 
might be the regular establishment of the Capiculi^ the 
troops of the Porte, who marched with the prince, and 
10* 



114 GREAT EVENTS. 

were paid from his royal treasury. But the Bashaws, in 
their respective governments, maintained or levied a pro- 
vincial militia ; many lands were held by a military ten- 
ure ; many volunteers were attracted by the hope of 
spoil ; and the sound of the holy trumpet invited a swarm 
of hungry and fearless fanatics, who might contribute at 
least to multiply the terrors, and, in a first attack, to blunt 
the swords, of the Christians. The whole mass of the 
Turkish powers is magnified by Ducas, Chalcocondyles, 
and Leonard of Chios, to the amount of three or four 
hundred thousand men ; but Phranza was a less remote 
and more accurate judge ; and his precise definition, of 
two hundred and fifty-eight thousand, does not exceed 
the measure of experience and probability. 

The navy of the besiegers was less formidable : the 
Propontis was overspread with three hundred and twenty 
sail ; but of these, no more than eighteen could be rated 
as galleys of war ; and the far greater part must be de- 
graded to the condition of store-ships and transports, which 
poured into the camp fresh supplies of men, ammunition, 
and provisions. In her last decay, Constantinople was 
still peopled with more than a hundred thousand inhabit- 
ants ; but these numbers are found in the accounts, not 
of war, but of captivity ; and they mostly consisted of 
mechanics, of priests, of women, and of men devoid of 
that spirit, which even women have sometimes exerted 
for the common safety. I can suppose, I could almost 
excuse, the reluctance of subjects to serve on a distant 
frontier, at the will of a tyrant ; but the man, who dares 
not expose his life in the defence of his children and his 
property, has lost in society the first and most active en- 
ergies of Nature. 

By the Emperor's command, a particular inquiry had 
been made, through the streets and houses, how many of 
the citizens, or even of the monks, were able and willing 
to bear arms for their country. The lists were intrusted 
to Phranza ; and, after a diligent addition, he informed 
his master, with grief and surprise, that the national de- 
fence was reduced to four thousand nine hundred and sev- 
enty Romans. Between Constantino and his faithful min- 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 115 

Ister, this comfortless secret was preserved ; and a suffi- 
cient proportion of shields, crossbows, and muskets, was 
distributed from the arsenal to the city bands. 

They derived some accession from a body of two 
thousand strangers, under the command of John Justini- 
ani, a noble Genoese. A liberal donative was advanced 
to these auxiliaries ; and a princely recompense, — the isle 
of Lemnos, — was promised to the valor and victory of 
their chief. 

A strong chain was drawn across the mouth of the 
harbor : it was supported by some Greek and Italian 
vessels of war and merchandise ; and the ships of every 
Christian nation, that successively arrived from Candia 
and the Black Sea, were detained for the public service. 
Against the powers of the Ottoman empire, a city of the 
extent of thirteen, perhaps of sixteen, miles, was defend- 
ed by a scanty garrison of seven or eight thousand sol- 
diers. Europe and Asia were open to the besiegers ; 
but the strength and provisions of the Greeks must sustain 
a daily decrease ; nor could they indulge the expectation 
of any foreign succor or supply. 

The primitive Romans would have drawn their swords, 
m the resolution of death or conquest. The primitive 
Christians might have embraced each other, and awaited, 
in patience and charity, the stroke of martyrdom. But 
the Greeks of Constantinople were animated, only by the 
spirit of religion, and that spirit was productive, only of 
animosity and discord. Before his death, the Emperor 
John Palseologus had renounced the unpopular measure 
of a union with the Latins ; nor was the idea revived, till 
the distress of his brother Constantino imposed a last trial 
of flattery and dissimulation. With the demand of tem- 
poral aid, his ambassadors were instructed to mingle the 
assurance of spiritual obedience ; his neglect of the Church 
was excused by the urgent cares of State ; and his ortho- 
dox wishes solicited the presence of a Roman legate. 

The Vatican had been too often deluded ; yet the signs 
of repentance could not decently be overlooked ; a legate 
was more easily granted than an army ; and, about six 
months before the final destruction, the cardinal Isidore, 



116 GREAT EVENTS. 

of Russia, appeared in that character, with a retinue of 
priests and soldiers. The Emperor saluted him as a 
friend and Either ; respectfully listened to his public and 
private sermons ; and, with the most obsequious of the 
clergy and laymen, subscribed the act of union, as it had 
been ratified in the council of Florence. On the twelfth 
of December, the two nations, in the church of St. So- 
phia, joined in the communion of sacrifice and prayer ; 
and the names of the two Pontiffs were solemnly com- 
memorated, — the names of Nicholas the Fifth, the Vicar 
of Christ, and of the Patriarch Gregory, who had been 
driven into exile by a rebellious people. 

But the dress and language of the Latin priest, who of- 
ficiated at the altar, were an object of scandal ; and it was 
observed, with horror, that he consecrated a cake or wa- 
fer of unleavened bread, and poured cold water into the 
cup of the sacrament. A national historian acknowl- 
edges, with a blush, that none of his countrymen, not the 
Emperor himself, were sincere in this occasional confor- 
mity. Their hasty and unconditional submission was 
palliated, by a promise of future revisal ; but the best, or 
the worst, of their excuses, was the confession of their 
own perjury. When they were pressed by the reproaches 
of their honest brethren, " Have patience," they whis- 
pered, *' have patience, till God shall have delivered the 
city from the great dragon who seeks to devour us. You 
shall then perceive, whether we are truly reconciled with 
the Azymites." But patience is not the attribute of zeal ; 
nor can the arts of a court be adapted to the freedom and 
violence of popular enthusiasm. 

From the dome of St. Sophia, the inhabitants, of either 
sex, and of every degree, rushed, in crowds, to the cell of 
the monk Gennadius, to consult the oracle of the Church. 
The holy man was invisible ; entranced, as it should seem, 
in deep meditation, or Divine rapture : but he had ex- 
posed, on the door of his cell, a speaking tablet ; and they 
successively withdrew, after reading these tremendous 
words: "O miserable Romans! why will ye abandon 
the truth ; and why, instead of confiding in God, will ye 
put your trust in the Italians ? In losing your faith, you 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 117 

will lose your city. Have mercy on me, O Lord ! I 
protest, in thy presence, that I am inno(ient of the crime. 
O miserable Romans ! consider, pause, and repent. At 
the same moment that you renounce the religion of your 
fathers, by embracing impiety, you submit to a foreign 
servitude." According to the advice of Gennadius, the 
religious virgins, as pure as angels and as proud as de- 
mons, rejected the act of union, and abjured all commu- 
nion with the present and future associates of the Latins ; 
and their example was applauded and imitated, by the 
greatest part of the clergy and people. 

From the monastery, the devout Greeks dispersed 
themselves in the taverns ; drank confusion to the slaves 
of the Pope ; emptied their glasses in honor of the image 
of the holy Virgin ; and besought her to defend against 
Mohammed, the city which she had formerly saved from 
Chosroes and Chagan. In the double intoxication of 
zeal and wine, they valiantly exclaimed, " What occasion 
have we for succor, or union, or Latins ^ far from us be 
the worship of the Azymites !" 

During the Winter that preceded the Turkish conquest, 
the nation was distracted by this epidemical frenzy ; and 
the season of Lent, the approach of Easter, instead of 
breathing charity and love, served only to fortify the ob- 
stinacy and influence of the zealots. The confessors 
scrutinized and alarmed the conscience of their votaries, 
and a rigorous penance was imposed on those who had 
received the communion from a priest, who had given an 
express or tacit consent to the union. His service at the 
altar propagated the infection to the mute and simple 
spectators of the ceremony ; they forfeited, by the im- 
pure spectacle, the virtue of the sacerdotal character ; 
nor was it lawful, even in danger of sudden death, to in- 
voke the assistance of their prayers or absolution. 

No sooner had the church of St. Sophia been polluted 
by the Latin sacrifice, than it was deserted as a Jewish 
synagogue, or a heathen temple, by the clergy and peo- 
ple ; and a vast and gloomy silence prevailed in that ven- 
erable dome, which had so often smoked with a cloud of 
incense, blazed with innumerable lights, and resounded 



118 GREAT EVEISTS. 

with the voice of prayer and thanksgiving. The Latins 
were the most odious of heretics and infidels ; and the 
first minister of the empire, the great Duke, was heard 
to declare, that he would rather behold in Constantinople, 
the turban of Mahomet, than the Pope's tiara or a cardinal's 
hat. A sentiment, so unworthy of Christians and patriots, 
was familiar and fatal to the Greeks : the Emperor was 
deprived of the affection and support of his subjects ; and 
their native cowardice was sanctified by resignation to the 
Divine decree, or the visionary hope of a miraculous de- 
liverance. 

Of the triangle which composes the figure of Constan- 
tinople, the two sides, along the sea, were made inacces- 
sible to an enemy ; the Propontis, by Nature, and the 
harbor by art. Between the two waters, the basis of the 
triangle, the land side was protected by a double wall, 
and a deep ditch of the depth of one hundred feet. 
Against thi§ line of fortification, which Phranza, an eye- 
witness, prolongs to the measure of six miles,* the Otto- 
mans directed their principal attack ; and the Emperor, 
after distributing the service and command of the most 
perilous stations, undertook the defence of the external 
wall. 

In the first days of the siege, the Greek soldiers de- 
scended into the ditch, or sallied into the field ; but they 
soon discovered, that, in the proportion of their numbers, 
one Christian was of more value than twenty Turks ; and, 
after these bold preludes, they were prudently content to 
maintain the rampart jKith their missile weapons. Nor 
should this prudence t%^ccused of pusillanimity. The 
nation was indeed pusillanimous and base ; but the last 
Constantine deserves the name of a hero : his noble band 
of volunteers was inspired with Roman virtue ; and the 
foreign auxiliaries supported the honor of the Western 
chivalry. The incessant volleys of lances and arrows 
were accompanied with the smoke, the sound, and the 
fire, of their musketry and cannon. Their small arms dis- 
charged, at the same time, either five, or even ten, balls 

* About six l^glish miles. 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 119 

of lead, of the size of a walnut ; and, according to the 
closeness of the ranks and the force of the powder, several 
breastplates and bodies were transpierced by the same shot. 

But the Turkish approaches were soon sunk in trench- 
es, or covered with ruins. Each day added to the sci- 
ence of the Christians ; but their inadequate stock of 
gunpowder was wasted in the operations of each day. 
Their ordnance was not powerful, either in size or num- 
ber ; and if they possessed some heavy cannon, they 
feared to plant them on the walls, lest the aged structure 
should be shaken and overthrown by the explosion. 

The same destructive secret had been revealed to the 
Moslems ; by whom it was employed with the superior 
energy of zeal, riches, and despotism. The great cannon 
of Mohammed was an important and visible object in the 
history of the times ; but that enormous engine was flanked 
by two fellows almost of equal magnitude : the long order 
of the Turkish artillery was pointed against the walls ; four- 
teen batteries thundered, at once, on the most accessible 
places ; and of one of these, it is ambiguously expressed, 
that it was mounted with one hundred and thirty guns, or 
that it discharged one hundred and thirty bullets. Yet, in 
the power and activity of the Sultan, we may discern the 
infancy of the new science. Under a master who count- 
ed the moments, the great cannon could be loaded and 
fired no more than seven times in one day. The heated 
metal unfortunately burst ; several workmen were destroy- 
ed, and the skill of an artist was admired, who bethought 
himself of preventing the danger jy^ the accident, by- 
pouring oil, after each explosion, tSBIT the mouth of the 
cannon. 

The first random shots were productive of more sound 
than effect ; and it was by the advice of a Christian, that 
the engineers were taught to level their aim against the two 
opposite sides of the salient angles of a bastion. How- 
ever imperfect, the weight and repetition of the fire made 
some impression on the walls ; and the Turks, pushing 
their approaches to the edge of the ditch, attempted to 
fill the enormous chasm, and to build a road to the as- 
sault. Innumerable fascines, and hogsheads, and trunks 



120 GREAT EVENTS. 

of trees, were heaped on each other ; and, such was the 
impetuosity of the throng, that the foremost and the weak- 
est were pushed headlong down the precipice, and in- 
stantly buried under the accumulated mass. To fill the 
ditch was the toil of the besiegers ; to clear away the rub- 
bish was the safety of the besieged ; and, after a long 
and bloody conflict, the web that had been woven in the 
day was still unravelled in the night. 

The next resource of Mohammed was the practice of 
mines ; but the soil was rocky ; in every attempt he was 
stopped and undermined by the Christian engineers ; nor 
had the art been yet invented of replenishing those sub- 
terraneous passages with gunpowder, and blowing whole 
towers and cities into the air. A circumstance, that dis- 
tinguishes the siege of Constantinople, is the reunion of the 
ancient and modern artillery. The cannon were inter- 
mingled with the mechanical engines for casting stones and 
darts ; the bullet and the battering-ram were directed 
against the same walls ; nor had the discovery of gunpow- 
der superseded the use of the liquid and inextinguishable 
fire. A wooden turret, of the largest size, was advanced 
on rollers : this portable magazine of ammunition and 
fascines was protected by a threefold covering of bulls^ 
hides ; incessant volleys were securely discharged from 
the loop-holes ; in the front, three doors were contrived 
for the alternate sally and retreat of the soldiers and work- 
men. They ascended, by a staircase, to the upper plat- 
form ; and, as high as the level of that platform, a scaling 
ladder could be raised by pulleys, to form a bridge, and 
grapple with the adverse rampart. By these various arts 
of annoyance, some as new, as they were pernicious, to 
the Greeks, the tower of St. Romanus was at length 
overturned : after a severe struggle, the Turks were re- 
pulsed from the breach, and interrupted by darkness ; but 
they trusted, that, with the return of hght, they should 
renew the attack, with fresh vigor and decisive success. 

Of this pause of action, this interval of hope, each mo- 
ment was improved by the activity of the Emperor and 
Justiniani, who passed the night on the spot, and urged 
the labors which involved the safety of the Church and 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 121 

city. At the dawn of day, the impatient Sultan perceiv- 
ed, with astonishment and grief, that his wooden turret 
had been reduced to ashes : the ditch was cleared and 
restored ; and the tower of St. Romanus was again strong 
and entire. He deplored the failure of his design ; and 
uttered a profane exclamation, that the word of the thirty- 
seven thousand prophets should not have compelled him 
to believe that such a work, in so short a time, could 
have been accomplished by the Infidels. 

The generosity of the Christian princes was cold and 
tardy ; but, in the first apprehension of a siege, Constan- 
tino had negotiated, in the isles of the Archipelago, the 
Morea, and Sicily, the most indispensable suppHes. As 
early as the beginning of April, five great ships, equipped 
for merchandise and war, would have sailed from the 
harbor of Chios, had not the wind blown, obstinately, from 
the north. One of these ships bore the Imperial flag : 
the remaining four belonged to the Genoese ; and they 
were laden with wheat and barley, with wine, oil, and 
vegetables, and, above all, with soldiers and mariners, 
for the service of the capital. After a tedious delay, a 
gentle breeze, and, on the second day, a strong gale from 
the south, carried them through the Hellespont and the 
Propontis : but the city was already invested, by sea and 
land ; and the Turkish fleet, at the entrance of the Bos- 
phorus, was stretched from shore to shore, in the form 
of a crescent, to intercept, or at least to repel, these bold 
auxiliaries. 

The reader, who has present to his mind the geograph- 
ical picture of Constantinople, will conceive and admire 
the greatness of the spectacle. The five Christian ships 
continued to advance, with joyful shouts, and a full press, 
both of sails and oars, against a hostile fleet of three hun- 
dred vessels ; and the rampart, the camp, the coasts of 
Europe and Asia, were lined with innumerable spectators, 
who anxiously awaited the event of this momentous suc- 
cor. At the first view, that event could not appear doubt- 
ful ; the superiority of the Moslems was beyond all meas- 
ure or account ; and, in a calm, their numbers and valor 
must inevitably have prevailed. But their hasty and im- 

11 G. E. 



122 GREAT EVENTS. 

perfect navy had been created, not by the genius of the 
people, but by the will of the Sultan ; in the height of 
their prosperity, the Turks have acknowledged, that, if 
God had given them the earth, He had left the sea to the 
Infidels ; and a series of defeats, a rapid progress of de- 
cay, has estabhshed the truth of their modest confession. 
Except eighteen galleys, of some force, the rest of their 
fleet consisted of open boats, rudely constructed and awk- 
wardly managed, crowded with troops, and destitute of 
cannon ; and, since courage arises, in a great measure, 
from the consciousness of strength, the bravest of the 
Janizaries might tremble on a new element. In the 
Christian squadron, five stout and lofty ships were guided 
by skilful pilots, and manned with the veterans of Italy 
and Greece, long practised in the arts and perils of the 
sea. Their weight was directed to sink or scatter the 
weak obstacles that impeded their passage ; their artillery 
swept the waters ; their liquid fire was poured on the 
heads of the adversaries, who, with the design of board- 
ing, presumed to approach them ; and the winds and 
waves are always on the side of the ablest navigators. In 
this conflict, the Imperial vessel, which had been almost 
overpowered, was rescued by the Genoese ; but the 
Turks, in a distant and closer attack, were twice repuls- 
ed, with considerable loss. Mohammed, himself, sat on 
horseback on the beach, to encourage their valor by his 
voice and presence, by the promise of reward, and by 
fear, more potent than the fear of the enemy. The pas- 
sions of his soul, and even the gestures of his body, seem- 
ed to intimate the actions of the combatants ; and, as if 
he had been the lord of Nature, he spurred his horse, 
with a fearless and impotent efibrt, into the sea. His 
loud reproaches, and the clamors of the camp, urged the 
Ottomans to a third attack, more fatal and bloody than 
the two former ; and I must repeat, though I cannot cred- 
it, the evidence of Phranza, who affirms, from their own 
mouth, that they lost above twelve thousand men in the 
slaughter of the day. They fled, in disorder, to the shores 
of Europe and Asia, while the Christian squadron, trium- 
phant and unhurt, steered along the Bosphorus, and se- 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 123 

curely anchored within the chain of the harbor. In the 
confidence of victory, they boasted that the whole Turk- 
ish power must have yielded to their arms ; but the ad- 
miral or captain bashaw found some consolation for a 
painful wound in his eye, by representing that accident as 
the cause of his defeat. Baltha Ogli was a renegade of 
the race of the Bulgarian princes ; his mihtary character 
was tainted with the unpopular vice of avarice ; and, un- 
der the despotism of the prince or people, misfortune is a 
sufficient evidence of guilt. His rank and services were 
annihilated, by the displeasure of Mohammed. In the royal 
presence, the captain bashaw was extended on the ground 
by four slaves, and received one hundred strokes with a 
golden rod : his death had been pronounced ; and he 
adored the clemency of the Sultan, who was satisfied with 
the milder punishment of confiscation and exile. The in- 
troduction of this supply revived the hopes of the Greeks, 
and accused the supineness of their western allies. Amidst 
the deserts of Anatolia, and the rocks of Palestine, the 
millions of the Crusaders had buried themselves in a vol- 
untary and inevitable grave ; but the situation of the Im- 
perial city was strong against her enemies, and accessible 
to her friends ; and a rational and moderate armament of 
the maritime states might have saved the relics of the 
Roman name, and maintained a Christian fortress in the 
heart of the Ottoman empire. Yet this was the sole and 
feeble attempt for the deliverance of Constantinople ; the 
more distant powers were insensible of its danger ; and 
the ambassador of Hungary, or, at least, of Huniades, 
resided in the Turkish camp, to remove the fears, and 
to direct the operations, of the Sultan. 

It was difficult for the Greeks to penetrate the secret 
of the Divan ; }et the Greeks are persuaded, that a re- 
sistance, so obstinate and surprising, had fatigued the 
perseverance of Mohammed. He began to meditate a 
retreat, and the siege would have been speedily raised, if 
the ambition and jealousy of the second vizier, had not 
opposed the perfidious advice of Calil Bashaw,* who still 

* The prime vizier, oi minister of the Sultan. He had long been 



124 GREAT EVENTS. 

maintained a secret correspondence with the Byzantine 
court. The reduction of the city appeared to be hope- 
less, unless a double attack could be made, from the har- 
bor, as well as from the land ; but the harbor was inac- 
cessible ; an impenetrable chain was now defended by 
eight large ships, more than twenty of a smaller size, with 
several galleys and sloops ; and, instead of forcing this 
barrier, the Turks might apprehend a naval sally, and a 
second encounter in the open sea. 

In this perplexity, the genius of Mohammed conceived 
and executed a plan, of a bold and marvellous cast, of 
transporting, by land, his lighter vessels and mihtary 
stores, from the Bosphorus into the higher part of the 
harbor. The distance is about ten miles ; the ground is 
uneven, and was overspread with thickets ; and, as the 
road must be opened behind the suburb of Galata, their 
free passage, or total destruction, must depend on the 
option of the Genoese. But these selfish merchants were 
ambitious of the favor of being the last devoured ; and the 
deficiency of art was supplied by the strength of obedient 
myriads. A level way was covered with a broad plat- 
form of strong and solid planks ; and, to render them more 
slippery and smooth, they were anointed with the fat of 
sheep and oxen. Fourscore light galleys and brigantines, 
of fifty and thirty oars, were disembarked on the Bospho- 
rus shore ; arranged successively on rollers, and drawn 
forwards by the power of m.en and pulleys. Two guides 
or pilots were stationed at the helm, and the prow, of 
each vessel ; the sails were unfurled to the winds ; and 
the labor was cheered by song and acclamation. 

In the course of a single night, this Turkish fleet pain- 
fully climbed the hill, steered over the plain, and was 
launched from the declivity into the shallow waters of the 
harbor, far above the molestation of the deeper vessels 
of the Greeks. 

The real importance of this operation was magnified, 
by the consternation and confidence which it inspired ; 
but the notorious, unquestionable fact was displayed be- 

engaged in a treasonable correspondence with the Greeks, which was 
detected and punished after the conclusion of the war. 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 125 

fore the eyes, and is recorded by the pens, of the two 
nations. A similar stratagem had been repeatedly prac- 
tised by the ancients : the Ottoman galleys (I must again 
repeat) should be considered as large boats ; and, if we 
compare the magnitude and the distance, the obstacles 
and the means, the boasted miracle has, perhaps, been 
equalled by the industry of our own times. 

As soon as Mohammed had occupied the upper har- 
bor, with a fleet and army, he constructed, in the nar- 
rowest part, a bridge, or rather mole, of fifty cubits in 
breadth, and one hundred in length ; it was formed of 
casks and hogsheads, joined with rafters, linked with iron, 
and covered with a solid floor. On this floating battery, 
he planted one of his largest cannon, while the fourscore 
galleys, with troops and scaling ladders, approached the 
most accessible side, which had formerly been stormed 
by the Latin conquerors. The indolence of the Chris- 
tians has been accused, for not destroying these unfinished 
works ; but their iire, by a superior fire, was controlled 
and silenced ; nor were they wanting in a nocturnal at- 
tempt to burn the vessels, as well as the bridge, of the 
Sultan. His vigilance prevented their approach ; their 
foremost galliots were sunk, or taken ; forty youths, the 
bravest of Italy and Greece, were inhumanly massacred 
at his command ; nor could the Emperor's grief be as- 
suaged by the just, though cruel retahation, of exposing 
from the walls, the heads of two hundred and sixty Mus- 
sulman captives. 

After the siege of forty days, the fate of Constantinople 
could no longer be averted. The diminutive garrison 
was exhausted by a double attack ; the fortifications, which 
had stood, for ages, against hostile violence, were dis- 
mantled, on all sides, by the Ottoman cannon ; many 
breaches were opened ; and near the gate of St. Roma- 
nus, four towers had been levelled with the ground. For 
the payment of his feeble and mutinous troops, Constan- 
tino was compelled to despoil the churches, with the 
promise of a fourfold restitution ; and his sacrilege offered 
a new reproach to the enemies of the union. A spirit of 
discord impaired the remnant of the Christian strength : 
11* 



126 GREAT EVENTS. 

the Genoese and Venetian auxiliaries asserted the pre- 
eminence of their respective service ; and Justiniani and 
the great Duke, whose ambition was not extinguished by 
the common danger, accused each other of treachery and 
cowardice. 

During the siege of Constantinople, the words of peace 
and capitulation had been sometimes pronounced ; and 
several embassies had passed between the camp and the 
city. The Greek Emperor was humbled by adversity ; 
and would have yielded to any terms, compatible with re- 
ligion and royalty. The Turkish Sultan was desirous of 
sparing the blood of his soldiers ; still more desirous of 
securing, for his own use, the Byzantine treasures ; and 
he accomplished a sacred duty in presenting to the Ga- 
bours,*' the choice of circumcision, of tribute, or of death. 
The avarice of Mohammed might have been satisfied with 
an annual sum of one hundred thousand ducats ; but his 
ambition grasped the capital of the East ; to the Prince 
he offered a rich equivalent, to the people, a free tolera- 
tion, or a safe departure : but, after some fruitless treaty, 
he declared his resolution of finding either a throne, or a 
grave, under the walls of Constantinople. A sense of 
honor, and the fear of universal reproach, forbade Palae- 
ologus to resign the city into the hands of the Ottomans ; 
and he determined to abide the last extremities of war. 

Several days were employed by the Sultan in the pre 
parations of the assault ; and a respite was granted by his 
favorite science of astrology, which had fixed on the tw^en- 
ty-ninth of May, as the fortunate and fatal hour. On the 
evening of the twenty-seventh, he issued his final orders ; 
assembled in his presence the military chiefs ; and dis- 
persed his heralds through the camp, to proclaim the du- 
ty, and the motives of the perilous enterprise. Fear is 
the first principle of a despotic government ; and his men- 
aces were expressed in the Oriental style, that the fugi- 
tives and deserters, had they the wings of a bird, should 
not escape from his inexorable justice. The greatest 
part of his bashaws and Janizaries were the offspring of 

* The Turkish name for Infidels, — same as Giaour. 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 127 

Christian parents ; but the glories of the Turkish name 
were perpetuated by successive adoption ; and, in the 
gradual change of individuals, the spirit of a legion, a reg- 
iment, or an oda^ is kept alive by imitation and disci- 
pline. In this holy warfare, the Moslems were exhorted 
to purify their minds with prayer, and their bodies with 
seven ablutions ; and to abstain from food, till the close 
of the ensuing day. A crowd of dervishes visited the 
tents, to instil the desire of martyrdom, and the assurance 
of spending an immortal youth amidst the rivers and gar- 
dens of paradise, and in the embraces of the black-eyed 
virgins. Yet Mohammed principally trusted to the effi- 
cacy of temporal and visible rewards. A double pay was 
promised to the victorious troops. " The city and the 
buildings," said Mohammed, " are mine ; but I resign to 
your valor the captives and the spoil, the treasures of gold 
and beauty ; be rich, and be happy. Many are the prov- 
inces of my empire : the intrepid soldier, who first ascends 
the walls of Constantinople, shall be rewarded with the 
government of the fairest and most wealthy ; and my grat- 
itude shall accumulate his honors and fortunes above the 
measure of his own hopes." Such various and potent 
motives diffused among the Turks a general ardor, re- 
gardless of hfe, and impatient for action. The camp re- 
echoed with the Moslem shouts of, " God is God, there 
is but one God, and Mohammed is the apostle of God ;" 
and the sea and land, from Galata to the Seven Towers, 
were illuminated by the blaze of their nocturnal fires. 

Far different was the state of the Christians ; who, with 
loud and impotent complaints, deplored the guilt, or the 
punishment, of their sins. The celestial image of the 
Virgin had been exposed in solemn procession, but their 
divine patroness was deaf to their entreaties ; they ac- 
cused the obstinacy of the Emperor, for refusing a timely 
surrender ; anticipated the horrors of their fate ; and sighed 
for the repose and security of Turkish servitude. The 
noblest of the Greeks, and the bravest of the allies, were 
summoned to the palace, to prepare them, on the evening 
of the twenty-eighth, for the duties and dangers of the 
general assault. The last speech of Palaeologus was the 



128 GREAT EVENTS. 

funeral oration of the Roman Empire : he promised, he 
conjured, and he vainly attempted to infuse the hope 
which was extinguished in his own mind. In this world, 
all was comfortless and gloomy ; and neither the Gospel, 
nor the Church, have proposed any conspicuous recom- 
pense to the heroes who fall in the service of their coun- 
try. But the example of their Prince, and the confine- 
ment of a siege, had armed these warriors with the courage 
of despair ; and the pathetic scene is described by the 
feehngs of the historian, Phranza, who was himself pres- 
ent at this mournful assembly. They wept, they embraced ; 
regardless of their families and fortunes, they devoted 
their hves ; and each commander, departing to his station, 
maintained, all night, a vigilant and anxious watch on the 
rampart. The Emperor, and some faithfui companions, 
entered the dome of St. Sophia, which, in a few hours, 
was to be converted into a mosque, and devoutly received, 
with tears and prayers, the sacrament of the holy com- 
munion. He reposed, some moments, in the palace, 
which resounded with cries and lamentations, solicited the 
pardon of all whom he might have injured, and mounted on 
horseback, to visit the guards, and explore the motions 
of the enemy. The distress and fall of the last Constan- 
tine are more glorious, than the long prosperity of the 
Byzantine Csesars. 

In the confusion of darkness, an assailant may some- 
times succeed ; but, in this great and general attack, the 
military judgement, and astrological knowledge of Mo- 
hammed, advised him to expect the morning, the memo- 
rable twenty-ninth of May, in the fourteen hundred and 
fifty-third year of the Christian era. The preceding night 
had been strenuously employed ; the troops, the cannon, 
and the fascines, were advanced to the edge of the ditch, 
which, in many parts, presented a smooth and level pas- 
sage to the breach ; and his fourscore galleys almost 
touched with the prows, and their scaling-ladders, the less 
defensible walls of the harbor. Under pain of death, si- 
lence was enjoined ; but the physical laws of motion and 
sound, are not obedient to discipline or fear ; each indi- 
vidual might suppress his voice, and measure his foot- 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 129 

Steps, but the march and labor of thousands must inevi- 
tably produce a strange confusion of dissonant clamors, 
which reached the ears of the watchmen of the towers. 

x4.t daybreak, without the customary signal of the morn- 
ing gun, the Turks assaulted the city, by sea and land ; 
and the similitude of a twined or twisted thread has been 
applied to the closeness and continuity of their line of 
attack. The foremost ranks consisted of the refuse of 
the host, a voluntary crowd, who fought without order or 
command ; of the feebleness of age or childhood, of peas- 
ants and vagrants, and of all who had joined the camp in 
the blind hope of plunder and martyrdom. The common 
impulse drove them onwards to the wall : the most auda- 
cious to climb were instantly precipitated ; and not a 
dart, nor a bullet, of the Christians, was idly wasted on 
the accumulated throng. But their strength and ammuni- 
tion were exhausted in this laborious defence ; the ditch 
was filled with the bodies of the slain ; they supported 
the footsteps of their companions ; and of this devoted 
vanguard, the death was more serviceable than ihe life. 

Under their respective bashaws and sanjaks,* the troops 
of Anatolia and Romania were successively led to the 
charge. Their progress was various and doubtful ; but, 
after a conflict of two hours, the Greeks still maintained 
and improved their advantage ; and the voice of the Em- 
peror was heard, encouraging his soldiers to achieve, by 
a last effort, the deliverance of their country. In that 
fatal moment, the Janizaries arose, fresh, vigorous, and 
invincible. The Sultan himself, on horseback, with an 
iron mace in his hand, was the spectator and judge of 
their valor. He was surrounded by ten thousand of his 
domestic troops, whom he reserved for the decisive oc- 
casions, and the tide of battle was directed and impelled, 
by his voice and eye. His numerous ministers of justice 
w^ere posted behind the line, to urge, to restrain, and to 
punish ; and, if danger was in the front, shame and inev- 

* Sanjak, or Sangiac, (Turkish, horsetail,) signifies, in the Turk- 
ish army,\n officer who is allowed to bear only one horsetail, the 
pachas having two or three. The Sangiac is also commonly the gov 
ernor of a smaller district of country, than a pachalic. 



130 GREAT EVENTS. 

itable death were in the rear of the fugitives. The cries 
of fear and of pain were drowned in the martial music of 
drums, trumpets, and attaballs ; and experience has proved, 
that the mechanical operation of sounds, by quickening 
the circulation of the blood and spirits, will act on the 
human machine more forcibly than the eloquence of rea- 
son and honor. From the lines, the galleys, and the 
bridge, the Ottoman artillery thundered on all sides ; and 
the camp and city, the Greeks and the Turks, were in- 
volved in a cloud of smoke, which could only be dispelled 
by the final deliverance or destruction of the Roman Em- 
pire. 

The single combats of the heroes of history or fable 
amuse our fancy, and engage our affections ; the skilful 
evolutions of war may inform the mind, and improve a 
necessary though pernicious science. But, in the uniform 
and odious pictures of a general assault, all is blood, and 
horror, and confusion ; nor shall I strive, at the distance 
of three centuries, and a thousand miles, to delineate a 
scene, of which there could be no spectators, and of which 
the actors themselves were incapable of forming any just 
or adequate idea. 

The immediate loss of Constantinople may be ascribed 
to the bullet, or arrow, which pierced the gauntlet of 
John Justiniani. The sight of his blood, and the exqui- 
site pain, appalled the courage of the chief, whose arms 
and counsels were the firmest rampart of the city. As 
he withdrew from his station in quest of a surgeon, his 
flight was perceived and stopped by the indefatigable Em- 
peror. " Your wound," exclaimed Palseologus, " is 
shght ; the danger is pressing ; your presence is necessa- 
ry ; and whither will you retire ?" "I will retire," said 
the trembhng Genoese, " by the same road which God 
has opened to the Turks ;" and, at these words, he has- 
tily passed through one of the breaches of the inner wall. 
By this pusillanimous act, he stained the honors of a mil- 
itary life ; and the few days which he survived in Galata, 
or the isle of Chios, were embittered by his own and the 
public reproach. His example was imitated by the great- 
est part of the Latin auxiliaries, and the defence began 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 131 

to slacken, when the attack was pressed with redoubled 
vigor. The number of the Ottomans was fifty, perhaps 
a hundred, times superior to that of the Christians. The 
double walls were reduced by the cannon to a heap of 
ruins. In a circuit of several miles, some places must 
be found more easy of access, or more feebly guarded ; 
and, if the besiegers could penetrate in a single point, the 
whole city was irrecoverably lost. The first who deser- 
ved the Sultan's reward was Hassan the Janizary, of gi 
gantic stature and strength. With his cimeter in one hand, 
and his buckler in the other, he ascended the outward 
fortification. Of the thirty Janizaries, who were emulous 
of his valor, eighteen perished in the bold adventure. 
Hassan and his twelve companions had reached the sum- 
mit ; the giant was precipitated from the rampart ; he 
rose on one knee, and was again oppressed by a shower 
of darts and stones. But his success had proved, that the 
achievement was possible : the walls and towers were in- 
stantly covered with a swarm of Turks ; and the Greeks, 
now driven from die vantage ground, were overwhelmed 
by increasing multitudes. 

Amidst these multitudes, the Emperor, who accom- 
plished all the duties of a general and a soldier, was long 
seen, and finally lost. The nobles, who fought round his 
person, sustained, till their last breath, the honorable names 
of Palaeologus and Cantacuzene. His mournful exclama- 
tion was heard, " Cannot there be found a Christian to 
cut oft' my head ?" and his last fear was that of falling, 
alive, into the hands of the infidels. The prudent despair 
of Constantine cast away the purple. Amidst the tumult, 
he fell by an unknown hand, and his body was buried un- 
der a mountain of the slain. 

After his death, resistance and order were no more. 
The Greeks fled toward the city ; and many were press- 
ed and stifled in the narrow pass of the gate of St. 
Romanus. The victorious Turks rushed through the 
breaches of the inner wall ; and, as they advanced into 
the streets, they were soon joined by their brethren, 
who had forced the gate Phenar, on the side of the harbor. 
Tn the first heat of the pursuit, above two thousand Chris- 



132 GREAT EVENTS. 

tians were put to the sword ; but avarice soon prevailed 
over cruelty ; and the victors acknowledged, that they 
should immediately have given quarter, if the valor of the 
Emperor and his chosen bands had not prepared them for 
a similar opposition in every part of the capital. 

It was thus, after a siege of fifty-three days, that Con- 
stantinople, which had defied the power of Chosroes, the 
Chagan, and the caliphs, was irretrievably subdued by the 
arms of Mohammed the Second. Her empire, only, had 
been subverted by the Latins ; her religion was trampled 
in the dust, by the Moslem conquerors. 

The tidings of misfortune fly with a rapid wing ; yet, 
such was the extent of Constantinople, that the more dis 
tant quarters might prolong, some moments, the happy ig- 
norance of their ruin. But, in the general consternation, 
in the feelings of selfish or social anxiety, in the tumult 
and thunder of the assault, a sleepless night and morning 
must have elapsed ; nor can I believe that many Grecian 
ladies were awakened by the Janizaries from a sound and 
tranquil slumber. On the assurance of the pubhc calami- 
ty, the houses and convents were instantly deserted ; and 
the trembling inhabitants flocked together, in the streets, 
like a herd of timid animals ; as if accumulated weakness 
could be productive of strength, or in the vain hope, that, 
amid the crowd, each individual might be safe and invisi- 
ble. From every part of the capital, they flowed into the 
church of St. Sophia. In the space of an hour, the sanc- 
tuary, the choir, the nave, the upper and lower galleries, 
were filled with the multitude of fathers and husbands, 
of women and children, of priests, monks, and religious 
virgins. The doors were barred on the inside, and they 
sought protection from the sacred dome, which they had 
so lately abhorred as a profane and polluted edifice. 
Their confidence was founded on the prophecy of an en- 
thusiast or impostor ; that, one day, the Turks would enter 
Constantinople, and pursue the Romans as far as the col- 
umn of Constantino in the square before St. Sophia ; but 
that this would be the term of their calamities ; that an 
angel would descend from heaven, with a sword in his 
hand, and would deliver the empire, with that celestial 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 133 

weapon, to a poor man, seated at the foot of the column. 
" Take this sword," would he say, " and avenge the peo- 
ple of the Lord." At these animating words, the Turks 
would instantly fly, and the victorious Romans would 
drive them from the West, and from all Anatolia, as far 
as the frontiers of Persia. It is on this occasion, that 
Ducas, with some fancy and much truth, upbraids the dis- 
cord and obstinacy of the Greeks. " Had that angel 
appeared," exclaims the historian, "had he offered to 
exterminate your foes, if you would consent to the union 
of the Church, even then, in that fatal moment, you would 
have rejected your safety, or have deceived your God." 
While they expected the descent of the tardy angel, the 
doors were broken with axes ; and, as the Turks encoun- 
tered no resistance, their bloodless hands were employed 
in selecting and securing the multitude of their prisoners. 
Youth, beauty, and the appearance of wealth, attracted 
their choice ; and the right of property was decided among 
themselves by a prior seizure, by personal strength, and 
by the authority of command. In the space of an hour, 
the male captives were bound with cords, the females 
with their veils and girdles. The senators were linked 
with their slaves ; the prelates with the porters of the 
church ; and young men of a plebeian class, with noble 
maids, whose faces had been invisible to the sun and their 
nearest kindred. In this common captivity, the ranks of 
society were confounded ; the ties of Nature were cut 
asunder ; and the inexorable soldier was careless of the 
father's groans, the tears of the mother, and the lamenta- 
tions of the children. The loudest in their wailings were 
the nuns, who were torn from the altar with naked 
bosoms, outstretched hands, and dishevelled hair ; and 
we should piously believe, that few could be tempted to 
prefer the vigils of the harem to those of the monastery. 
Of these unfortunate Greeks, of these domestic animals, 
whole strings were rudely driven through the streets ; and, 
as the conquerors were eager to return for more prey, 
their trembling pace was quickened with menaces and 
blows. At the same hour, a similar rapine was exercis- 
ed in all the churches and monasteries, in all the palaces 
12 «• E. 



154 GREAT EVENTS. 

and habitations of the capital ; nor could any place, how- 
ever sacred or sequestered, protect the persons or the 
property of the Greeks. 

Above sixty thousand of this devoted people were trans- 
ported from the city to the camp and fleet ; exchanged 
or sold, according to the caprice or interest of their mas- 
ters, and dispersed in remote servitude, through the prov- 
inces of the Ottoman empire. Among these, we may 
notice some remarkable characters. The historian Phran- 
za, first chamberlain and principal secretary, was involved, 
with his family, in the common lot. After suffering four 
months the hardships of slavery, he recovered his free- 
dom. In the ensuing Winter, he ventured to Adrianople, 
and ransomed his wife from the mh' bashi^ or master of 
the horse ; but his two children, in the flower of youth 
and beauty, had been seized for the use of Mohammed 
himself. The daughter of Phranza died in the seraglio, 
perhaps a virgin. His son, in the fifteenth year of his age, 
preferred death to infamy, and was stabbed by the hand 
of the Sultan. A deed thus inhuman cannot, surely, be 
expiated by the taste and liberality with which he released 
a Grecian matron, and her two daughters, on receiving 
a Latin ode from Philelphus, who had chosen a wife in 
that noble family. The pride or cruelty of Mohammed 
would have been most sensibly gratified by the capture of 
a Roman legate ; but the dexterity of Cardinal Isidore 
eluded the search, and he escaped from Galata, in a ple- 
beian habit. 

The chain and entrance of the outward harbor was still 
occupied by the Italian ships of merchandise and war. 
They had signalized their valor in the siege ; they em- 
braced the moment of retreat, while the Turkish mariners 
were dissipated in the pillage of the city. When they 
hoisted sail, the beach was covered with a suppliant and 
lamentable crowd. But the means of transportation were 
scanty. The Venetians and Genoese selected their coun- 
trymen ; and, notwithstanding the fairest promises of the 
Sultan, the inhabitants of Galata evacuated their houses, 
and embarked with their most precious effects. 

In the fall and the sack of great cities, an historian is 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 135 

condemned to repeat the tale of uniform calamity ; the 
same effects must by produced by the same passions ; and, 
when those passions may be indulged without control, 
small, alas ! is the difference between civilized and sav- 
age man. Amidst the vague exclamations of bigotry and 
hatred, the Turks are not accused of a wanton or immod- 
erate effusion of Christian blood ; but, according to their 
maxims, (the maxims of antiquity,) the lives of the van- 
quished were forfeited ; and the legitimate reward of the 
conqueror was derived from the service, the sale, or the 
ransom, of his captives, of both sexes. The wealth of 
Constantinople had been granted by the Sultan to his vic- 
torious troops ; and the rapine of an hour is more produc- 
tive than the industry of years. But, as no regular divis- 
ion was attempted of the spoil, the respective shares 
were not determined by merit ; and the rewards of valoi- 
were stolen away by the followers of the camp, who had 
declined the toil and danger of the battle. The narrative 
of their depredations could not afford either amusement 
or instruction. The total amount, in the last poverty of 
the empire, has been valued at four millions of ducats ;* 
and, of this sum, a small part was the property of the Ve- 
netians, the Genoese, the Florentines, and the merchants 
of Ancona. Of these foreigners, the stock was improved 
in quick and perpetual circulation. But the riches of the 
Greeks were displayed in the idle ostentation of palaces 
and wardrobes, or deeply buried in treasures of ingots 
and old coin, lest it should be demanded at their hands, 
for the defence of their country. 

The profanation and plunder of the monasteries and 
churches excited the most tragic complaints. The dome 
of St. Sophia itself, the earthly heaven, the second firma- 
ment, the vehicle of the cherubim, the throne of the glory 
of God, was despoiled of the oblations of ages ; and the 
gold and silver, the pearls and jewels, the vases and sac- 
erdotal ornaments, were most wickedly converted to the 
service of mankind. After the divine images had been 
stripped of all that could be valuable to a profane eye, the 

* A ducat is a gold coin, — value about ^2,07^ cts. 



136 GREAT EVENTS. 

canvass, or the wood, was torn, or broken, or burnt, or 
trod under foot, or applied, in the stables, or the kitchen, 
to the vilest uses. The example of sacrilege was imita- 
ted, however, from the Latin conquerors of Constantino- 
ple. 

Perhaps, instead of joining the public clamor, a phi- 
losopher will observe,, that, in the decline of the arts, the 
workmanship could not be more valuable than the work. 
He will more seriously deplore the loss of the Byzantine 
libraries, which were destroyed or scattered, in the general 
confusion. One hundred and twenty thousand manuscripts 
are said to have disappeared ; ten volumes might be pur- 
chased for a single ducat ; and the same ignominious price 
included the whole works of Aristotle and Homer, the no- 
blest productions of the science and literature of ancient 
Greece. We may reflect, with pleasure, that an inesti- 
mable portion of our classic treasures was safely deposi- 
ted in Italy ; and that the mechanics of a German town 
had invented an art, which derides the havoc of time and 
barbarism. 

From the first hour of the memorable twenty-ninth of 
May, disorder and rapine prevailed in Constantinople, till 
the eighth hour of the same day ; when the Sultan himself 
passed, in triumph, through the gate of St. Romanus. He 
was attended by his viziers, bashaws, and guards, each of 
whom (says a Byzantine historian) was robust as Hercu- 
les, dexterous as Apollo, and equal in battle to any ten 
of the race of ordinary mortals. The conqueror gazed, 
with satisfaction and wonder, on the strange though splen- 
did appearance of the domes and palaces, so dissimilar 
horn the style of Oriental architecture. In the hippo- 
drome, or atmeidan, his eye was attracted by the twist- 
ed column of the three serpents ; and, as a trial of his 
strength, he shattered, with his iron mace or battle-axe, 
the under jaw of one of these monsters, which, in the eyes 
of the Turks, were the idols, or talismans of the city. 

At the principal door of St. Sophia, he alighted from 
his horse, and entered the dome ; and, such was his jealous 
regard for that monument of his glory, that, on observing 
a zealous Mussulman in the act of breaking the marble 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 137 

pavement, he admonished him, with his cimeter, that, if 
the spoil and captives were granted to the soldiers, the 
pubhc and private buildings had been reserved for the 
Prince. By his command, the metropolis of the Eastern 
Church was transformed into a mosque ; the rich and por- 
table instruments of superstition had been removed ; the 
crosses were thrown down ; and the walls, which were 
covered with images and mosaics, were washed and pu- 
rified, and restored to a state of naked simplicity. 

On the same day, or on the ensuing Friday, the muez- 
zin, or crier, ascended the most lofty turret, and proclaimed 
the ezaii, or pubhc invitation in the name of God and his 
Prophet ; the imam preached ; and Mohammed the Sec- 
ond performed the namaz of prayer and thanksgiving, on 
the great altar, where the Christian mysteries had so lately 
been celebrated before the last of the Caesars. From St. 
Sophia he proceeded to the august but desolate man- 
sion of a hundred successors of the great Constantino ; but 
which, in a {q\y hours, had been stripped of the pomp of 
royalty. A melancholy reflection, on the vicissitudes of 
human greatness, forced itself on his mind ; and he re- 
peated an elegant distich of Persian poetry : " The spi- 
der has wove his web in the Imperial palace ; and the 
owl hath sung her watch-song on the towers of Afrasiab." 

Yet his mind was not satisfied, nor did the victory seem 
complete, till he was informed of the fate of Constantino ; 
whether he had escaped, or been made prisoner, or had 
fallen in the battle. Two Janizaries claimed the honor 
and reward of his death ; the body, under a heap of slain, 
was discovered by the golden eagles embroidered on his 
shoes. The Greeks acknowledged, with tears, the head of 
their late Emperor ; and, after exposing the bloody trophy, 
Mohammed bestowed on his rival the honors of a decent 
funeral. After his decease, Lucas Notaras, great duke, 
and first minister of the Empire, was the most important 
prisoner. When he offered his person and his treasures 
at the foot of the throne, — " And why," said the indignant 
Sultan, " did you not employ these treasures in the de- 
fence of your prince and country V "They were yours," 
answered the slave ; " God had reserved them for your 
J 2* 



138 GREAT EVENTS. 

hands." " If he reserved them for me," replied the 
despot, "how have you presumed to withhold them so 
long, by a fruitless and fatal resistance ?" The great 
duke alleged the obstinacy of the strangers, and some se- 
cret encouragement from the Turkish vizier ; and, from 
this perilous interview, he was at length dismissed, with the 
assurance of pardon and protection. Mohammed conde- 
scended to visit his wife, a venerable princess, oppressed 
with sickness and grief ; and his consolation for her mis- 
fortunes was in the most tender strain of humanity and 
filial reverence. 

A similar clemency was extended to the principal offi- 
cers of state, of whom, several were ransomed at his ex- 
pense ; and, during some days, he declared himself the 
friend and father of the vanquished people. But the scene 
was soon changed ; and, before his departure, the hippo- 
drome streamed with the blood of his noblest captives. 
His perfidious cruelty is execrated by the Christians ; they 
adorn, with the colors of heroic martyrdom, the execu- 
tion of the great duke, and his two sons ; and his death 
is ascribed to the generous refusal of delivering his chil- 
dren to the tyrant's lust. Yet a Byzantine historian has 
dropped an unguarded word of conspiracy, deliverance, and 
Italian succor. Such treason may be glorious ; but the 
rebel, who bravely ventures, has justly forfeited his hfe ; 
nor should we blame a conqueror, for destroying the ene- 
mies, whom he can no longer trust. On the eighteenth 
of June, the victorious Sultan returned to Adrianople ; 
and smiled at the base and hollow embassies of the Chris- 
tian princes, who viewed their approaching ruin in the fall 
of the Eastern empire. 

Constantinople had been left naked and desolate, with- 
out a prince or a people. But she could not be despoil- 
ed of the incomparable situation which marks her for the 
metropolis of a great empire ; and the genius of the place 
will ever triumph over the accidents of time and fortune. 
Boursa and Adrianople, the ancient seats of the Ottomans, 
sunk into provincial towns ; and Mohammed the Second 
established his own residence, and that of his successors, 
on the same commanding spot, which had been chosen by 



CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 139 

Constantine. The fortifications of Galata, which might 
afford a shelter to the Latins, were prudently destroyed ; 
but the damage of the Turkish cannon was soon repaired; 
and, before the month of August, great quantities of hme 
had been burnt, for the restoration of the walls of the cap- 
ital. As the entire property of the soil and buildings, 
whether public or private, profane or sacred, was now 
transferred to the conqueror, he first separated a space of 
eight furlongs from the point of the triangle for the estab- 
lishment of his seraglio, or palace. It is here, in the 
bosom of luxury, that the grand signior (as he has been 
emphatically named, by the Italians) appears to reign over 
Europe and Asia ; but his person on the shores of the 
Bosphorus may not always be secure from the insults of 
a hostile navy. In the new character of a mosque, the 
cathedral of St. Sophia was endowed with an ample rev- 
enue, crowned with lofty minarets, and surrounded with 
groves and fountains, for the devotion and refreshment of 
the Moslems. The same model was imitated in the jami, 
or royal mosques ; and the first of these was built, by Mo- 
hammed himself, on the ruins of the church of the holy 
apostles, and the tombs of the Greek emperors. On the 
third day after the conquest, the grave of Abou Ayub, or 
Job, who had fallen in the first siege of the Arabs, was re- 
vealed in a vision ; and it is before the sepulchre of the 
martyr, that the new Sultans are girded with the sword of 
empire. Constantinople no longer appertains to the Ro- 
man historian ; nor shall I enumerate the civil and relig- 
ious edifices that were profaned or erected by its Turkish 
masters. The population was speedily renewed ; and, be- 
fore the end of September, five thousand famihes of 
Anatolia and Romania had obeyed the royal mandate, 
which enjoined them, under pain of death, to occupy their 
new habitations in the capital. The throne of Mohammed 
was guarded by the numbers and fidelity of his Moslem 
subjects. But his rational policy aspired to collect the 
remnant of the Greeks ; and they returned, in crowds, as 
soon as ihey were assured of their lives, their liberties, 
and the free exercise of their religion. In the election 
and investiture of a Patriarch, the ceremonial of the By- 



140 GREAT EVENTS. 

zantine court was revived and imitated. With a mixture 
of satisfaction and horror, they beheld the SuUan on his 
throne ; who dehvered into the hands of Gennadius the 
crosier, or pastoral staff, the symbol of his ecclesiastical 
office ; who conducted the Patriarch to the gate of the 
seraglio, presented him with a horse, richly caparisoned, 
and directed the viziers and bashaws, to lead him to the 
palace, which had been allotted for his residence. The 
churches of Constantinople were shared between the two 
religions ; their limits were marked ; and, till it was in- 
fringed by Selim, the grandson of Mohammed, the Greeks 
enjoyed, above sixty years, the benefit of this equal parti- 
tion. Encouraged by the ministers of the divan, who 
wished to elude the fanaticism of the Sultan, the Chris- 
tian advocates presumed to allege, that this division had 
been an act, not of generosity, but of justice ; not a con- 
cession, but a compact ; and that, if one-half of the city 
had been taken by storm, the other moiety had surrendered 
on the faith of a sacred capitulation. The original grant 
had indeed been consumed by fire ; but the loss was sup- 
plied by the testimony of three aged Janizaries, who re- 
membered the transaction ; and their venal oaths are of 
more weight in the opinion of Cantemir, than the positive 
and unanimous consent of the history of the times. 



MARTIN LUTHER. 141 



THE APPEARANCE OF MARTIN LUTHER BE- 
FORE THE DIET OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 
AT WORMS, IN THE YEAR 1521. 

This account is taken from the History of the German 
Reformation, by Philip Marheinecke, D. D. Professor of 
Theology in the University of BerHn, 2 vols. Berlin, 1816. 
The work relates the various events, as far as possible, in 
the words of eye-witnesses, correspondents, or other con- 
temporaries. It has, therefore, a peculiar intrinsic as well 
as external character of originality, which gives to the pas- 
sage relating to Luther's appearance at Worms, a very 
lively interest. Every reader, whether Protestant or 
Roman Catholic, will admit, that Luther's Declaration, at 
Worms, was an act of great historical importance. It is 
one of those events, to which we must necessarily recur, in 
contemplating the main features of the history of mankind; 
— one of those acts, for which preparation has been made, 
by a long succession of changes and movements, and the 
effects of which, in turn, are visible for centuries ; — one 
of those acts, in fine, by which a new order of things comes 
to be irrevocably established, and a portion of mankind 
pledged to its support. Such acts can sometimes be tra- 
ced by the shrewd historian, only ; for it is not necessary, 
that they should manifest themselves as striking events, 
speaking directly to every mind. When, however, they 
unite with their historical importance, a dramatic interest, 
as is the case with the present one ; when mighty interests 
are personated by emperors, and cardinals, and a humble 
monk, or a nation is visibly represented by an august Diet, 
and we not only feel convinced of the great importance of 
the event, but see it acted out before us, in distinct, con- 
trasting forms ; then, indeed, they acquire the highest in- 
terest of which history admits. 

The Reformation had begun to extend widely over Ger- 
many ; the writings of Luther were anxiously read, the 
more so, perhaps, since they had been prohibited by the 
Pope. Luther had been excommunicated. The Emperor 
Charles V. had proposed to the Diet, (that is, to the as- 
sembled estates of the Germanic empire, — the electors, 
dukes, princes, counts, and barons, as well as the prelates, 



142 GREAT EVENTS. 

of the empire, and the delegates of the free imperial cities,) 
to order the writings of Luther to be sent in, and burned. 
But the national feeling was very decidedly against such 
condemnation of writings, on the part of Rome, withou\ 
sufficient inquiry into them in Germany, and without first 
giving to Luther a hearing. The Emperor saw himself 
obliged to grant to the German Reformer a safeconduct, 
to go, unmolested, to, and return from. Worms, where the 
Emperor's first Diet was held. This, perhaps, he was the 
more willing to do, in consideration of the aid he had de- 
rived in his election, to the crown of Germany, from the 
Elector of Saxony, whose subject Luther was. The last 
named prince had repeatedly declared, that he was unable 
and unwilling to decide upon Luther's writings, for him- 
self ; and that he agreed to what Luther had always ask- 
ed, a fair hearing ; nor was he willing to acknowledge the 
absolute power of Rome, to decide, in matters of such im- 
portance, without patient inquiry into the views of both 
sides. Before Luther went to Worms, the Pope had al- 
ready, on the 28th of March, included him and all his ad- 
herents, in the famous bull, ' In Ccena Domini.'* In other 
words, Luther had been included by the Pope in the num- 
ber of condemned and excommunicated heretics, a list of 
whom is every year publicly read, either by the Pontiff 
himself, or a delegate. Luther was not intimidated by this 
act of Papal tyranny ; on the contrary, he published a sar- 
castic reply to, and commentary on, the bull, in the style 
of the age. 

To form a just estimate of the character of Luther, we 
must consider, not only the personal danger, to which he 
exposed himself, in going to Worms, reminded, by his 
friends, as he seriously was, of the fate of Huss, but also, 
the towering courage which it required, for an humble in- 
dividual, like himself, to take so bold a stand, before the 
assembled empire, against the Pope and Church. We 
must recollect the vast political power of the Church, and, 
what is far more, the immense moral power of a vast in- 
stitution, entwined, as that was, in a thousand ways, with 
all the branches of life, with the affections of men, with 
science, with the very logic of the age, with the arts, 
poetry, and literature, with all and every thing that occu- 

* So called, according to the usual mode of namiBg bulls, because 
beginning with the words, " In Ccena Domini." 



MARTIN LUTHER. 14S 

pies the mind of man, as well in the higher as in the more 
ordinary spheres of action and interest. If we consider 
how early he had to take this bold stand, with what un- 
wavering firmness he did it, and how worthily he acquitted 
himself, it will probably be admitted, that no act in his life 
more prominently shows the heroic element in his soul, 
which, upon close and calm examination, must be con- 
sidered as one of the foremost traits in his powerful char- 
acter. The account is taken from Vol. I., beginning with 
page 255. 

The carriage, in which Luther drove to Worms, had 
been given him by the town-council of Wittemberg, for 
which he politely thanked them in a letter. At Weimar, 
Duke John had furnished him with some travelling money. 
At Erfurt, his reception was peculiarly solemn. Crotus, 
then Rector of the University, accompanied by Cobanns 
Hessen, Curicius Cordus, John Draco, and others, forty 
in number, all on horseback, with many people on fool, 
received him at the distance of two (German) miles from 
Erfurt, and accompanied the carriage which contained 
Luther and his companions, into the town. At the en- 
trance, and in all the streets of the town, through which 
the cortege passed, the throng was still greater. He 
also preached here, at the request of many persons, in the 
convent of the Augustines. His friend Coban has sung 
his entry into Erfurt, and sojourn there, in four beautiful 
Latin poems. At Eisenach, he was taken sick, and was 
bled, and the burgomaster of the town administered to 
him a "noble water," after which, he fell asleep. The 
next morning, he proceeded on his journey. Whenever 
he entered a town, multitudes met him, desirous to see 
that bold man, who dared to take a stand against the 
Pope. Some gave him sore comfort, by saying, that, 
considering the many cardinals and bishops at Worms, 
there could be little doubt, but that they would soon burn 
him to powder, as they had burned Huss, at Constance. 
But Luther replied, " Though they should kindle fire, 
between Wittemberg and Worms, whose flames should 
reach to the heavens, I would still appear in the name of 
the Lord, and step into the very jaws of Behemoth, and 



144 GREAT EVENTS. 

profess Christ, and let him rule." From Frankfort, he 
wrote to Spalatine, having heard, in the mean time, of the 
Imperial edict :* " We are coming, dear Spalatine, al- 
though satan, by means of sickness, has thrown many ob- 
stacles in my path ; for I have been indisposed, all the 
way from Eisenach to this place, and am so still, to a 
degree very unusual with me. I also hear that the Em- 
peror Charles has issued a mandate, in order to intimidate 
me. Yet Christ lives ; therefore, we will proceed into 
Worms, in despite of all the hosts of hell, and the powers 
of the air. I am resolved to terrify and contemn satan. 
Therefore, prepare a lodging for us." 

An attempt was also made, and he afterwards stated, 
that it was through the intrigues of the Elector of May- 
ence, to induce him not to take the direct road to Worms, 
but to go first to the castle of Ebernburg, and there con- 
verse with the cunning Glapius. Perhaps, there was no 
evil design in all this ; especially, if we consider that this 
castle belonged to Francis von Sickingen, and that this 
knight himself united with the others, in requesting that 
conversation, through the intervention of Bucerus. Lu- 
ther, however, viewed the plan with suspicion, and feared 
that he might be detained there, until the only remaining 
three days of the safeconduct should have elapsed. He 
therefore answered, resolutely, "that he would proceed 

* As may easily be supposed, many intrigues had been employed by 
the enemies of Luther, either to prevent his appearing at Worms, jr, 
at least, to prevent the grant of an Imperial safeconduct. Thus, the 
Emperor proposed to the Elector of Saxony, whose subject Luther 
was, that he should receive a safeconduct from the Elector only, 
either in order to intimidate Luther, or that he might seize upon him, 
if necessary. But the Elector declined this proposal ; and, on the 
sixth of 3Iarch, Luther was cited, by the Emperor, to appear, within 
twenty-one days. It is remarkable, that, although the Papal bull was 
known, Luther is addressed, in the citation, — " The honest, our dear 
and pious Dr. Martin Luther, of the Augustines." There was not a 
word about recantation, either in the citation, or the letter of safecon- 
duct. The princes, through whose territories he had to pass, likewise 
gave him letters of safeconduct. Caspar Sturm was appointed herald, 
to accompany Luther in person ; and, for that purpose, was called 
• Germany.' The Elector was not without apprehension, and wrote, 
with his own hand, to the town-council of Wittemberg, to protect him 
well, and, if need were, to give him a guard, as well as to fit him out 
decently for the journey. 



MARTIN LUTHER. 145 

whither he had been summoned ; and that he might be 
found at Worms." At Oppenheim, Spalatine sent him 
word, not to go to Worms, and expose himself to such 
danger. Luther answered him, " If there were as many 
devils in Worms, as tiles on the roofs, still I v/ould go 
thither." When, a few days before his death, he related 
this occmTence, he added, "for I was fearless ; I fear- 
ed nothing. God can make one thus daring. I do not 
know, whether I should no^v be so cheerful." 

He arrived at Worms, on the sixteenth of April. His 
carriage was preceded by the Imperial herald, in his offi- 
cial dress, with the Imperial eagle, and his pursuivant. 
Tartus Jonas, with his secretary, followed the carriage. 
Many of the nobles had gone to meet him ; and when, at 
ten o'clock, he drove into the town, more than two thou- 
sand people accompanied him to his lodgings, not far from 
the White Swan Inn, where Lewis, Elector of the Pala- 
tinate, had taken up his quarters. In the same house 
with him, resided the Saxon counsellors, Frederic of 
Thunau and Philip of Feilitsch, both knights, as likewise 
Ulrich von Pappenheim, marshal of the empire. This 
is related by Vitus Warbeck, canon of Altenburg, who, 
on account of his knowledge of the French language, was 
then at the court of the Elector Frederic, and gave these 
accounts of Luther's entry into Worms to Duke John, 
brother to the Elector of Saxony. 

The next morning, he was cited, by Pappenheim, the 
hereditary marshal of the empire, to appear, that after- 
noon, in the council of the empire. This nobleman came 
for him, in person, at four o'clock, and, together with the 
heralds, preceded him on his way to the council. The 
press of the people, in the streets, was so great, that many 
climbed upon the roofs to see him, and it became neces- 
sary, in order to avoid the multitude, to go through some 
houses and gardens. When Luther was about entering 
the council chamber, the renowned general, George 
Frundsberg, tapped him on the shoulder, and said, " Lit- 
tle monk, little monk,* thou art now going to. take a 

* The original of the above has the diminutive of the word monk^ 
which, I am well aware, is used, in this case, by way of cheering en- 
13 G. E. 



146 GREAT EVENTS. 

Stand, the like of which neither I, nor many other generals 
have ever taken, even in the critical hour of battle. Art 
thou of right opinion, and sure in thy cause ? then pro- 
ceed, in God's name, and be sure, God will never abandon 
thee." Ulrich of Hutten (a famous knight) had likewise 
comforted him, by two excellent letters, which are ad- 
dressed, " To Martin Luther, the invincible theologian and 
evangelist, my reverend friend." The first begins thus : 
'' ' The Lord hear thee, in the day of trouble ! The name 
of the God of Jacob defend thee ! Send thee help from 
the sanctuary, and strengthen thee out of Zion ! Grant 
thee thy heart's desire : and fulfil all thy mind. The 
Lord perform all thy petitions, and hear thee, from His 
holy heaven ; even with the strength of His right hand.' 
For what else can I wish you, most w^orthy Luther, most 
honored father, in these times ? Be comforted ; be 
strong. You see what a game you now have to play, 
and what is the point at issue. You may hope every 
thing of me. If you remain constant, I '11 support you 
to my latest breath." Some even ventured to express 
their approbation of him, in the meeting of high person- 
ages, princes, counts, barons, bishops, and other delegates. 
According to the report of an eyewitness, there were up- 
wards of five thousand people, foreign and German, in the 
chamber, the ante-chambers, and outside, at the windows. 
Luther was cheered, on all sides, and exhorted to take 
courage, and not to fear those that can kill the body, only. 
Lord Pappenheim (the title of count was not conferred, 
till a later period) reminded him, that now, standing be- 
fore the Emperor and estates, he should say nothing, ex- 
cept when called upon. John von Eck,* ' ofiicial' to 
the Elector, archbishop of Treves, stepped forward, and, 
in the Emperor's name, asked, whether the books, lying 
there, which were pointed out to him, w^ere his, and 

dearment, or, at least, of encouraging familiarity ; while liith, if mis- 
taken for a term to express size, would ill apply to Luther, who was 
broadly framed. Yet I have thought that "little monk" comes nearer 
to the original, than the simple word monk would have done. 

* One of Luther's most vehement antagonists. Some of Luther'" 
answers are no less vehement. 



MARTIN LUTHER. 147 



whether he would renounce the opinions contained in 
them. Upon this, D. Schurf, who had been allowed bin) 
as an advocate and protector, called out : " Let the books 
be mentioned by name." When this had been done, Lu- 
ther answered the first question in the affirmative, but re- 
quested some time for reflection, before he should answer 
the second. This, the Emperor granted. It was highly 
proper, both out of respect for his own character, and 
ihat of the assembly, that Luther should show the greatest 
circumspection in relation to these high and sacred matters, 
and scrupulously avoid, from this momentous hour, any 
thing which might appear like inconsiderate want of grav- 
ity, or even like violent passion. When he was cited to ap- 
pear again, the next day, before the council of the empire, 
every one was most anxious to hear the decisive answer. 
The herald was sent for him, again, at four o'clock ; but 
he was obliged to wait until six, so great was the crowd 
of people. The lights were already burning in the cham- 
ber. When, at last, he was ushered in, and had been 
ordered to speak, he addressed the assembly, in German, 
as follows : " Most gracious Emperor, electors, princes, 
and lords : I appear, obedient, at the time which was last 
evening appointed ; and pray, through God's mercy, that 
your majesty, and you, my lords, would most graciously 
listen to this just and true cause, for such, I trust, it is ; 
and if, from ignorance, I should perhaps fail to give to ev- 
ery one his becoming tide, or otherwise to bear myself 
according to the customs of courts, that you would gra- 
ciously pardon me, as one who has not lived in courts, 
but dwelt in monasteries, and who can testify to nothing 
else respecting myself, but that, in every thing which 1 
have thus far taught and written, with a simple heart, 1 
have had in view, and sought for, only the honor of God, 
and the profit and salvation of the faithful ; and wished, 
that these should be honestly instructed in the truth." 
He then made a distinction between his different books. 
In some, he said, he had treated of faith and Christian 
works, conformably to true Christian doctrine, according 
to the testimony even of his adversaries ; these, he could 
not take back. " Nay," said he, " even the Papal bull, 



148 GREAT EVENTS. 

hasty and violent though it be, considers some of my 
books as not of dangerous tendency, although it condemns 
them, by a frightful, unnatural sentence." In the other 
works, he said, he had attacked the authority of the Pope, 
and the doctrine of the Papists, who, by their false doc- 
trine and wicked example, have ruined Christendom, in 
body and soul. For nobody, he continued, can deny or 
conceal, — because experience proves it, and all pious 
hearts deplore it, — that, by the law of the Pope and doc- 
trines of human device, the consciences of the faithful are 
monstrously and wretchedly entangled, burdened, and tor- 
mented, and the property, estates, and possessions, espe- 
cially those of the high-renowned German nation, have 
been exhausted and swallowed up, w^ith incredible tyranny, 
and, to this day, continue so to be, without opposition. 
What he had advanced in these books, he could not 
retract, any more than in the case of the former ; since, 
should he do so, he only should confirm his enemies in 
their tyranny and malice. "O !" he exclaimed, "what 
a great and shameful cover of all sorts of knavery and ty- 
ranny, blessed God, should I then make of myself!" 
The third class of his books, he added, was directed 
against some private persons, who had dared to defend 
Roman tyranny, and to falsify and suppress the pious doc- 
trine which he had taught. In these, he had sometimes 
shown himself more violent than was befitting his office, 
yet neither could he take back these, lest he should en- 
courage people to defend, in future, all sorts of wicked 
things, and bring about new horrors and violence. " Yet," 
continued he, " since I am a man, and not God, I cannot 
otherwise help or defend my books, than as my Lord and 
Saviour did his doctrine, who, when he was questioned 
respecting his doctrine, before the high-priest Annas, and 
had received a blow on the cheek from the servant of the 
high-priest, said, ' If I have spoken evil, bear witness 
of the evil.' If, then, the Lord, who knew He could not 
err, did not refuse to hear testimony against His doctrine, 
even from a low and wicked servant, how much more 
should I, who am but dust and ashes, and who am so lia- 
ble to err, desire the same, and wait to see, whether any 



MARTIN LUTHER. 149 

one will testify against my doctrine. Therefore, I pray, 
through the mercy of God, your imperial majesty, your 
electoral and princely highnesses, or whosoever else will 
do it, be he high or low, to give evidence, and prove to 
me, from the prophetic and apostolic writings, that I have 
erred, so that I may be persuaded of it, and I shall be 
willing and ready to renounce every error, and will be 
the first to throw my books into the fire. 

" Thus, I truly think that I have sufficiently considered 
and weighed the disturbances, danger, and contest, which 
my books are said to have caused, and of which I was so 
distinctly reminded, yesterday. To me, indeed, it is the 
highest pleasure and joy, to see how contest and discord 
arise, for the sake of the word of God ; for this is the na- 
ture, course, and fate, of his word. Therefore, it is to be 
considered, how inscrutable God is, in his counsels and 
judgements ; so that perhaps that, which is designed as a 
means of allaying contest and discord, may become an 
irresistible flood of danger to body and soul, if, trusting 
to our own power and wisdom, we begin with persecution 
and perversion of the word of God. Moreover, care is to 
be taken, that the government of this most excellent and 
kindly youth,* the Emperor Charles, (in whom, next to 
God, we have much hope,) do not begin, much less con- 
tinue and end, in evil and unhappiness. I might easily 
explain and illustrate this remark still further, by exam- 
ples from Holy Writ, as in the case of Pharaoh, of the 
king of Babylon, and the kings of Israel, who brought 
the greatest misery upon themselves, when they meant 
to pacify and maintain their kingdoms, by their most pru- 
dent plans and counsels. For He it is, ' who taketh the 
wise in their own craftiness,' who ' removeth the moun- 
tains, and they know not.' (Job v. 13, ix. 5.) There- 
fore, men should fear God. 

'' But, for brevity's sake, I will omit further examples, 
now. I have not said all this, because I supposed that 
such distinguished personages need to be informed by me, 
and reminded of their duty, but because I would not, and 

* Charles was then twenty-one years old. 

13* 



150 GREAT EVENTS. 

ought not, refuse my most dutiful service to the German 
nation, to my dear fatherland. And thus would I most 
humbly recommend myself to your imperial majesty and 
your electoral and princely highnesses, and devoutly pray, 
that you would not allow yourselves to be moved by my 
adversaries, without cause." 

This and more was spoken by Luther in German. 
But it was known that the Emperor understood Spanish, 
better than German, and did not hke the German lan- 
guage. " Therefore," says Luther, (in his account of 
this day,) "while I was thus speaking, they asked me, 
to repeat it over, again, in Latin. I felt very warm, and 
was in a profuse perspiration, partly on account of the 
crowd, partly because I stood before princes ; and Mr. 
Friederic of Thunau said, ' If you cannot do it, this will 
answer. Doctor.' But I repeated all I had said, in Lat- 
in. This pleased the Duke Frederic, the Elector, ex- 
ceedingly well." 

All this Luther did, with great humility, and a submis 
sive demeanor ; nor did he speak loud, nor vehemently, 
but in a most decorous and exceedingly modest manner, yet 
with great cheerfulness and firmness. When, however, 
the ' official' of Treves interrupted him, in a menacing 
tone, and demanded a round and direct answer, whether 
he would recant or not, Luther replied : " Since his im- 
perial majesty and their electoral and princely highnesses 
demand a plain, simple, and direct, answer, 1 will give 
one, which shall have neither horns nor teeth, naniely, 
this : — Unless I can be persuaded and convinced, by 
proofs from Holy Writ, or by fair reason and argument, 
(for I neither allow the Pope, nor the councils, to be 
sole authority, since it is known and manifest, that they 
have often erred, and have contradicted one another,) 
unless, therefore, I can be confuted in respect to the 
passages, which I have quoted, since my conscience is 
hemmed in by the word of God, I cannot and will not 
recant, because it is neither safe nor prudent to do aught 
against conscience. Here I stand ; I cannot do other- 
wise ; so help me God ! Amen." 

" When I had thus finished," says Luther, in his ac- 



MARTIN LUTHER. 151 

count, ''they allowed me to depart, and two attendants 
were appointed, to conduct and accompany me. Upon 
this, a tumult arose, and the nobles called out, ' Do 
they lead you away prisoner ?' I answered, ' they only 
accompany me.' In this manner, I returned to my inn, 
and have never since appeared in the council of the em- 
pire." 

The cheerful profession of the truth, which Luther 
had here made, in the face of the whole German empire, 
won him the hearts of many nobles and princes ; even 
such, as did not remain faithful and firm in the profession 
of the gospel, in after times ; and also of others, who, 
from considerations of caution, did not openly express 
their approbation. The old Duke Eric of Brunswick, 
however, sent him a silver can of Einbeck beer,* and bade 
him refresh himself with it. When Luther asked, what 
prince had so graciously thought of him, he was told, 
that it was the Duke, who had himself first drunk from 
the can. Luther, no longer fearing any evil design, drank, 
likewise, and said, " As Duke Eric has thought of me, 
this day, so may our Lord Christ think of him, in his 
last struggle." 

Duke Eric remembered these words, in his last hour ; 
and asked a page, Francis von Kramm, standing near his 
bed, to comfort him with evangelic comfort. "It is cer- 
tainly true," says the good Spalatine, " that God honored 
the Doctor Martin, at the Diet, in such a manner, that 
he had many more spectators and beholders, than all the 
princes and lords. His lodgings were, every day, throng- 
ed with people, as long as he remained at Worms. Thus 
have I, Spalatine, seen with him, among other counts and 
lords, Landgrave Philip, of Hessia, Duke William, of 
Brunswick, and Count William, of Henneberg. Thus, 
also, my most gracious master, Duke Frederic, Elector 
of Saxony, felt such an admiration of the Christian, cour- 
ageous answer of the Doctor Martin, before the imperial 
majesty, and the estates of the empire, in Latin and Ger- 
man, that his electoral grace, before he sat down to sup- 

* Einbeck, or Eimbeck, a town not far from Gottingen, noted for its 
good beer. 



152 GREAT EVENTS. 

per, sent for me to the inn of Doctor Martin ; and, when 
his electoral grace was about to wash himself, and per- 
ceived me, he beckoned me to follow him into the cham- 
ber. And when I entered, his electoral grace said, with 
great admiration, 'Well has the father, Doctor Martin, 
spoken before the lord our Emperor, and all the princes 
and estates of the empire ; but he has been too brave for 
me.' Now," adds Spalatine, " my most gracious master, 
just mentioned, was, as yet, somewhat fainthearted. He 
certainly loved Doctor Martin, and would have felt great 
sorrow, had any evil befallen him ; he would not wiUingly 
have done any thing against the word of God, but neither 
would he have been willing to draw upon himself the ill- 
will of the Emperor." How much the Elector took the 
affair of Luther to heart appears, especially, from some 
letters, which this prince wrote with his own hand, during 
the Diet, to his brother John. In one, dated, January 
the sixteenth, (and, consequently, before Luther had been 
cited,) he says, among other things, that "he perceives, 
that there are daily consultations against Luther, how he 
may be excommunicated by the Pope, and outlawed by 
the Emperor, and that they try to get at him, in all man- 
ner of ways. This," he continues, " is done, by those 
who shine in red hats ;* and by the Romans, with their 
adherents." He adds, moreover, that, on the same day, 
Landgrave Philip had arrived with a troop of six hundred 
horse, in which were many brave men ; that the same had, 
immediately after, visited him, and then his father-in-law, 
Duke George. Duke George, he says, talks with him, 
(the Elector,) ''in a very friendly manner. How the 
heart is," he adds, " God alone knows." Under date of 
January the thirtieth, he writes, that Martin's affair is in 
the same state, as he described it, lately, but that he hopes 
that, through God's mercy, truth will come to light. In 
another letter, of March the twenty-fifth, he complains of 
the press of business, and that he is obliged to sit, daily, 
from eight to nine hours in the council chamber. " Doc- 
tor Martin," he continues, " has been cited, but I do not 

* The cardinals. 



MARTIN LUTHER. 153 

know whether he will come ; every thing goes slowly ; I 
cannot promise much good." On April the sixteenth, he 
wrote : " I do not know whether Luther will come ; de- 
crees against him have been publicly affixed to the walls, 
&c. [These were the decrees against his books.] The 
cardinals and bishops are strongly opposed to him ; may 
God rule every thing for the best. Would to God, I could 
induce Martin, to some fairness ; it should not be wanting 
in me." On April twenty-third, after Luther had been 
heard, he wrote : "If it rested with me, I should be wil- 
hng to assist Martin, in all things lawful. Your grace 
may believe me, that I am perplexed in these matters ; 
you have strange tidings to hear from me, respecting them. 
It seems, they contemplate no less, than to thrust him 
out into misery. Whoever shows, in any degree, that he 
loves him, is at once set down as a heretic. May God 
direct every thing for the best, who verily will not aban- 
don the just cause. How Luther has been dismissed, I 
will write in my next." On May the fifth : '' Martin V 
affair stands thus ; he must go into misery ; there is no 
remedy ; but the issue remains with God. When, with 
God's assistance, I join your grace, I shall have to tell 
you wonders. Your grace may believe me, that not only 
Annas and Caiaphas, but also Pilate and Herod, oppose 
Luther." Other measures were soon after taken, to in- 
duce Luther to some recantation. Not to mention the 
Papal theologian, Cochlaeus,* (who was the bitter enemy 
of Luther, at a later period, although he boasted, after- 
wards, of having shed tears during his attempts at inducing 
him to recant, at Worms,) there were not a few, who 
thought that the easiest way of proceeding with Luther 
would be, to refuse him a safeconduct home. Among these, 
was, unfortunately, the Elector of Brandenburg. But the 
Emperor Charles, as well as the Elector of the Palatinate, 
and especially, (which is most to be wondered at,) Duke 
George, of Saxony, manfully opposed this proposition. 
The Elector Lewis, of the Palatinate, with whom, as 
Mathesius says, was buried German peace and quiet, had 

* His original German name was Lofler, 



154 GREAT EVENTS. 

such a quarrel with the Elector Joachim of Brandenburg, 
upon this subject, that, as Luther relates, they grasped 
their knives. But Duke George frankly declared, that 
the German princes would never suffer so shameful a 
violation of the safeconduct, especially at the first Diet 
of the Emperor ; that this would not agree with ancient 
German honesty ; that what had been promised must be 
performed. Which, indeed, was spoken in a noble and 
princely spirit, and must, in fairness, be praised in one, 
who was, in other respects, a vehement enemy. 

Hopes were still entertained, of bringing Luther, by 
private conversations, to a change of sentiments. In a 
conference of this sort, at which Reichard, archbishop 
of Treves, the Elector Joachim, of Brandenburg, Duke 
George, and some counts and deputies of the cities, were 
present, the chancellor of Baden, Doctor Vehus, con- 
ducted the conversation, and, after that, the archbishop 
of Treves took Luther, privately, into a chamber, where 
"the ' official,' Eck, and Cochlaeus were likewise pres- 
ent. On the next day, April the twenty-fifth, Vehus, 
with Doctor Peutinger, continued the labor, both before 
and after noon. But the Elector Frederic was not wil- 
hng that Luther should hold discussions with them, alone ; 
and sent some of his counsellors to join them. At 
length, the archbishop of Treves took him aside, once 
more, upon which, Luther declared, he knew no better 
counsel than that of Gamaliel : " If this counsel or this 
work, be of man, it will perish ; but if it be of God, 
you will not be able to smother it." He added, " If 
my cause is not of God, it will not last beyond two or 
three years ; if it be of God, it cannot be stifled." 
Upon this, the Elector (the archbishop of Treves was 
one of the electors) asked, whether nothing could pos- 
sibly be done, by the recantation of certain articles. 
Luther answered, " My gracious lord, so that they be not 
the very ones, which they have condemned at Constance." 
Upon this, the Elector said : " Those, I fear me, are 
the very ones." " Those," replied Luther, " I cannot 
yield, happen to me what may." 

At length, leave to depart from Worms, was granted 



MARTIN LUTHER. 155 

him, according to his desire. The electoral ' officiaP 
of Treves and the private secretary of the Emperor in- 
formed him, that since, in spite of so many exhortations, 
he would not yield to the authority of the Church, his 
imperial majesty must consider himself as the advocate 
of the Catholic faith, and consequently command him 
to return to his home, under free safeconduct, within 
twenty-one days, and not to excite the people, on the 
way, by preaching or writing. Luther answered, upon 
this, "As it has pleased the Lord, even so it has hap- 
pened ; blessed be the name of the Lord." He added, 
that, above all, he most devoutly and obediently thanked 
the emperor's majesty, the electors and estates of the 
empire, that they had heard him, so graciously, and that 
the promised safeconduct had been kept, and should still 
be kept, inviolate. For that he had desired, in all his 
doings, nothing but this, that a reformation, on the ground 
of Holy Writ, for which he had so earnestly petitioned, 
should be undertaken and executed. As for the rest, 
that he would cheerfully do and suffer every thing for the 
emperor's majesty, and the empire ; would submit life or 
death, honor or shame, and keep nothing for himself, ex- 
cept the word of God, freely to profess and testify to 
the same. And, finally, that he would commend himself 
most devoutly to his imperial majesty, and the whole 
empire. 

Thus Luther left Worms, on the twenty-sixth day 
of April ; having first taken leave of all his friends. He 
arrived at Friedburg on the twenty-eighth. Being now in 
Hessian territory, he sent back the imperial herald, with 
two letters, one to the Emperor,- the other to the estates 
of the empire. In these, after a relation of all the trans- 
actions at Worms, he complains, that his doctrine had 
not been inquired into, on the grounds of Scripture, and 
once more expresses his thanks, for the safeconduct. 
He concludes the letter to the Emperor, with these 
words : " Therefore, I most earnestly pray, not for my- 
self, alone, for I am an unworthy and despised man, but 
for and in the name of all Christendom. This it is 
which has moved me, to send this epistle. For I wish- 



156 GREAT EVENTS. 

ed, from all my heart, that your imperial majesty should 
be a blessing to the whole empire, and to the noble and 
most worthy German nation, and that all should be kept 
in God's grace, with all success and happiness. I have 
not, thus far, sought any thing else but the honor of God, 
and the general welfare and salvation of every man ; and 
have not considered my own advantage ; nor do I, now ; 
whether God permit my adversaries to condemn me or 
not. If Christ, my Lord, prayed for his enemies on the 
cross, much more shall I be careful of, and pray and im- 
plore God for, your imperial majesty, the whole empire, 
and my beloved forefathers,* and the whole of Germany, 
my dear fatherland, for the which I hope every thing 
good, according to my cheerful and confident trust in 
Christ, my Lord." 

At his departure from Worms, he had been prohibi- 
ted, indeed, from all preaching ; but he had no ways as- 
sented to this condition. On the contrary, he had made 
this reservation, " that God's word remains unfettered, 
and that he was at liberty freely to profess it." He 
preached, therefore, at Hirschfeld. At this place, the 
abbot, a Benedictine, who was one of the princes of the 
empire, received him with extraordinary honors, and in- 
vited him to preach, although Luther reminded him, that 
he might chance to lose his abbey for it. He likewise 
preached at Eisenach. While he was proceeding on his 
journey, having left the main road, to visit some friends 
near Salzungen, he was suddenly seized upon, not far 
from Altenstein and Waltershausen, by an arrangement 
of the Elector, in concert with John von Berlepsch, 
bailiff at Wartburg, and Burkhard Hund, lord of Alten- 
stein, by some disguised horsemen, who, however, were 
soon recognised as kind friends. They lifted him out 
of the carriage, placed him on horseback, led him about 
in the forest for some hours. At length, at eleven o'clock 
at night, they brought him to the castle of Wartburg, 

* To these "beloved forefathers" the previous "being careful 
of," it would seem has only reference, which, indeed, appears clearer 
from the origmal. 



MARTIN LUTHER. 157 

near Eisenach, the ancient residence of the landgraves 
of Thuringia.* 

* Here Luther passed under the name of Knight George, (or, as we 
would express it in modern idiom. Chevalier George,) and here, in 
silvan solitude, in one of the finest spots of the Thuringian Forest, he 
translated the New Testament into German. In this retirement, 
where his prince kept him for his safety, he remained ten months, 
when, informed of the destruction of pictures, and other fanatical dis- 
turbances, excited by Carlstadt, he could remain no longer. Feeling 
called upon to hasten to the fanatics, in order to preach reason, peace, 
and order, in the name of sound religion, he left the castle, notwith- 
standing the new proclamation of outlawry, which the Emperor had 
just issued against him from Nuremberg. His letter to the Elector 
Frederic, upon this occasion, like his whole appearance at Worms, 
proves the heroic firmness of his soul. 



14 G. E. 



158 GREAT EVENTS. 



THE SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES, 
IN THE YEAR 1522. 

BY THE ABBE VERTOT. 

The universal desire to visit those spots, which, for 
any reason, are endeared to us, or which have been hal- 
lowed by important or great actions, — a desire common 
to mankind, in all periods, — became gradually a distinc- 
tive feature of the middle ages, as shown in the pilgrim- 
ages which were made to all places considered peculiarly 
sacred, but especially to the country where the Saviour 
had lived, taught, and suffered. The religious fervor, 
and the romantic and venturous spirit, so universally 
blended and diffused in that age, naturally presented in 
the most attractive light, a perilous journey to the tomb of 
Christ and the city of Jerusalem. This was especially 
the case, when, likewise in the spirit of the times, such a 
pilgrimage came to be considered, and finally to be pro- 
claimed, by the Church, as a good work, of itself, pos- 
sessing, as such, some degree of merit in the eyes of the 
Deity, which might counterbalance previous failures and 
wrongs. Yet, the chief agent which impelled thousands 
and thousands to visit Jerusalem and Mount Sinai, we 
must seek in the devotional glow and religious fervor of 
the times, which had seized upon the otherwise universal 
desire of mankind, already mentioned, to visit hallowed 
spots. It is originally the same impulse, which makes the 
scholar desire to see Athens or Rome, and the citizen to 
walk over the battle field where his ancestors bled for the 
liberty which he enjoys. It is this, which gives to the 
little town of Palos a very different interest, in the eyes 
of every one who honors the heroic perseverance of Co- 
lumbus, from that, with which he views other seaports 
infinitely more important, in the commerce of nations. 
For the pilgrimages to the Holy Land were performed by 
thousands, long ere the Church declared them to possess 
the effective agency of good works. The pilgrims, how- 
ever, were exposed to many privations ; and, not unfre- 
quently, to the serious wants and the numerous sufferings, 
brought on by diseases peculiar to the East, and to which 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 159 

most of the pilgrims were especially exposed, destitute, as 
they were, of most of the necessaries and comforts which 
might have protected their health. Some pious men, 
therefore, resolved to dedicate their lives to the attend- 
ance upon, and relief of, the sick pilgrims at Jerusalem ; 
and, at the beginning of the eleventh century, some mer- 
chants from Amalfi, in the kingdom of Naples, furnished 
the necessary means to establish a regular hospital for 
pious pilgrims, with a church, which was dedicated to St. 
John the Baptist. When, therefore, those voluntary min- 
isters of the sick assumed some regular order among them- 
selves, and especially, when they were recognised and 
sanctioned as a regular society, by the Church, they were 
called Brothers of St. John, or Hospitallers. The Cru- 
sades, those repeated attempts to wrest, from the posses- 
sion of the Mohammedans, the countries hallowed, in the 
mind of every Christian, by the history of his religion, 
not unfrequently left unemployed, for a time, some of the 
Knights, who had proceeded to Palestine, to fight against 
the Saracens. Some of them, seeing how charitably the 
Hospitallers were employed, in furnishing relief to the suf- 
fering pilgrim, resolved to join them, in this work of char- 
ity, while their swords had a respite. Not long after, a 
Religious Order was organized, and sanctioned by the 
Pope, the chief part of the members of which were to be 
soldiers in arms aojainst the Infidels, but uniting with their 
warlike character, at the same time, the character of 
members of a religious order, and that of nurses of the 
sick. They were to be Knights, and were obliged to 
prove their descent from noble families. Hence, they 
were called, Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusa- 
lem. The Pope was the supreme spiritual head of this, 
as of every other religious order. A Knight Hospitaller 
was required to take the three common monastic vows, — 
that of obedience to his superiors and the Church ; of 
chastity, including that of celibacy ; and of poverty, which 
was, however, in various modes dispensed with. In addi- 
tion to these vows, he took those of unremitted hostility 
and war against the Infidels, and of devotedness to the 
sick. The Order had grown so decidedly out of the spirit 
of the times, and answered so directly the devotional and 
adventurous desire of action, in the middle ages ; it united, 
in so remarkable a degree, religious fervor and chivalric 
spirit ; the stern, world-renouncing vows of the monk with 



160 GREAT EVENTS. 

the feudal notions of the importance of noble descent ; the 
humble and menial works of charity with the brilliant and 
heroic deeds of arms ; — that it rapidly increased, and ac- 
quired great property, in all the countries of Western Eu- 
rope. In this respect, likewise, that the Order extended 
over many different countries, it truly represented the 
spirit of those times, in which the tribes belonging to one 
country had not yet consolidated into great nations, and 
when the Roman Catholic Church embraced nearly all 
the numerous dialects and tribes of the Christians of West- 
ern Europe. Knights of all nations belonged to this Or- 
der, which, for the better administration of its extensive 
possessions, and the organization of its members, was di- 
vided into Languages, of which, in the most flourishing 
times of the Order, there were eight ; namely, those of 
Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, Germany, 
Castile, and England. At the head of the Order was the 
Grand-master, an elective officer, deemed a sovereign 
prince in all secular matters. According to the later cer- 
emonial of the Courts, he took precedence before the car- 
dinals. 

There were, besides the Knights Hospitallers, other 
members of the Order ; namely, chaplains, or priests, and 
servitors. For a long time, the Order maintained itself in 
Palestine, by union and great courage, against the Turks 
and Saracens ; but they were finally obliged, with all the 
other Christians of the West, to leave the Holy Land. Af- 
ter having established themselves, for some time, in the isl- 
and of Cyprus, where the Order first acquired a naval char- 
acter, they conquered the island of Rhodes, near the coast 
of Asia Minor. This, they greatly improved, both as a 
commercial place and as a military bulwark of Christen- 
dom, during the two centuries, through which these " noble 
and warlike monks, renowned by land and sea,"* kept 
possession of it, by means of their continued heroic exer- 
tion. They were now called Knights of Rhodes. Mo- 
hammed the Second, the conqueror of Constantinople, and 
of so many kingdoms and principalities, the dread of Chris- 
tian Europe, the almost irresistible Captain, who had al- 
ready taken Otranto, in Italy, and probably would have 
pursued his conquests in that country, — and who will ven- 
ture to say, how far he might have pushed his fearful victo- 
ries, but for his death ! — that Sultan, who filled all Europe 

* Gibbon. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 161 

with such an awe, that every church inserted a prayer 
against the Turks, in its litany, and celebrated joyful festiv- 
ities, when the Christians had been able to make a stand 
against him, as if they had gained a victory ; — this mighty 
conqueror could not, with all his power, the universal 
dread he inspired, and all the treachery he could make 
use of, subdue the Knights of Rhodes. They repelled his 
attack, by a most gallant and persevering defence, under 
their Grand-master, Peter d'Aubusson ; and Mohammed 
is said to have given directions, that his tomb should be 
inscribed, not with an enumeration of his victories, but 
with these words : 

" I MEANT TO CONQUER RHODES, 
AND TO SUBDUE FAIR ITALY." 

Ever since this repulse, the Turks considered it a point 
of honor to subdue that proud island, as they were like- 
wise interested in its conquest, on account of the serious 
and continual injury which the Knights of Rhodes inflicted 
upon their maritime trade, by intercepting the rich convoys 
from Egypt to Constantinople, or to the western Mohamme- 
dan states in Africa. A great armament, therefore, was 
fitted out, under Soliman the Second, in the year 1522 ; 
and Rhodes, after a most protracted defence, equalled in 
fortitude and undaunted heroism by few other actions in 
history, and attracting, at the time, the universal admira- 
tion and sympathy of Europe, was at last compelled to sur- 
render. Yet, so noble had been the defence, and so inju- 
rious to the overwhelming force of the Turks, that the 
most honorable conditions were granted to the handful of 
exhausted and crippled Knights, who had the misfortune, 
as they considered it, to survive their brethren and the 
fall of their island. From the conquest of Asia Minor and 
the Greek empire, by the Turks, to the famous naval bat- 
tle at Lepanto, in 1571, where John of Austria, the son of 
Charles the Fifth, broke the Turkish maritime power, so 
that it never fully recovered, there existed the greatest dan- 
ger, lest Western Europe, disunited as it was, should be 
forced from its onward course of civilization, by the Turk- 
ish arms.* The valiant and martyr-like defence of Rhodes, 

* The Turks made several attempts against Austria, by land, at a 
much later period, and advanced even as far as Vienna, — the last time 
as late as 1683, w^hen Sobiesky freed that city ; but the danger of 
their overwhelming Europe must be considered as past, after the bat 
tie at Lepanto. 

14* 



162 GREAT EVENTS. 

although it ended in surrender, because Europe would not 
send any aid, must be considered as a very essential ep- 
och in this long struggle between the Mohammedan East 
and the Christian West. The service which the Knights of 
Rhodes rendered to Christian civilization, by holding out, 
so long, and by making Rhodes to serve as a mole or 
breakwater against the power of the Turks, was eminent. 

When the Knights of Rhodes had left that island, their 
head-quarters remained uncertain, for a long time, until 
Charles the Fifth gave them the island of Malta, on con- 
dition of perpetual war against l;he Infidels and the pirates. 
Henceforward, they were called the Knights of Malta. 
Upon this island, they sustained another violent attack of 
the Turks ; but, this time, the valor of the Knights, under 
the command of the Grand-master Lavalette, was crowned 
with final success, in maintaining the possession of the isl- 
and, although at the sacrifice of many Knights, and only by 
performing deeds very similar to those which had distin- 
guished their predecessors in Rhodes. The period of the 
French Revolution, in which the aspect of Europe was 
changed, in so many respects, witnessed, also, the termina- 
tion of this Order, which had long changed its essential 
character. 

Recently, papers have stated that the Order of the 
Knights of St, John has been revived, by the King of 
Naples ; for what purpose, we are not yet informed. Of 
course, it cannot be to wage perpetual war against the In- 
fidels, because, since Turkey has entered into the regular 
diplomatic connexion with the other powers of Europe, and 
is considered as an integrant part of the political system of 
that part of the world, every attempt at fulfilling the an- 
cient vow of the Knights, of perpetual war against the 
Turks, would be treated, by all the maritime powers, as 
piracy. 

I have selected, from the whole history of that illustrious 
Order, replete with stirring events, the Siege and Surren- 
der of Rhodes, in 1522, taken from Vertot's ' History of 
the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem,' trans- 
lated from the French, Edinburgh, 1770. 

RexXe Aubert de Vertot was born in 1655, in the 
country of Caux, in France. He entered the ecclesiasti- 
cal state, not, as was so often the case in former times, by 
family arrangement, because he was the second son of a 
noble family, but from a sincere desire of his own. His 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 163 

ardent piety induced him, to take the monastic vows of 
the Capuchins, without the knowledge of his family. His 
health, however, was so delicate, that the rigid rules of his 
order threw him into a serious sickness. Friends of the 
family, after many ineffectual attempts, at length prevailed 
upon the young monk, to allow them to obtain for him the 
dispensation of the Pope, to exchange his present order, 
for one of less austere rules. After various changes, he 
was made curate of a small place, an office he obtained at 
his own desire. In 1689, he published his ' History of the 
Conspiracy of Portugal,' and, seven years later, his ' His- 
tory of the Revolutions of Sweden.' In 1.701, when the 
French Academy was reorganized, Vertot was made an 
academician ; and, not long after, went to reside at Paris, 
and began to occupy himself solely with his studies. The 
Memoirs of the Academy contain many contributions from 
his pen. He now wrote the History of the Revolutions of 
the Roman Republic ; a work, which, though a favorite 
with its author, is without critical value, and stands far be- 
low the present standard of historical science ; yet, when 
it appeared, in 1719, it was received with much applause.^ 
Owing, probably, to the reputation obtained by this Work, 
which suited an age not very critical in its way of treating 
ancient history, and which became the more popular, per- 
haps, on account of a certain happy mediocrity and super- 
ficial ease, the Order of the Knights of Malta requested 
him to reduce to a complete history their glorious annals, 
and the chronicles they already possessed. Vertot agreed, 
and the Work, whose title I have mentioned, became the 
production of his advanced age. This Work is no more a 
critical history than his other writings, and cannot, in this 
respect, be compared to the History of the Templars, by 
Wilcke, Leipzig, 1827 ; but we must not forget that a 
whole century elapsed between the two authors. The his- 
tory of the Hospitallers goes only down to the end of the 
sixteenth century. Vertot wrote his history in the style 
of his time. Scrupulous detail, or attention to the internal 
connexion of parts, and to the manner in which one is nec- 
essarily produced by another, had less importance, in his 
eyes, than the dramatic effect of prominent actions. Still, 

* It was to Vertot, that Lord Stanhope, one of the ministers of George 
the First, applied for information, respecting the formation of the Ro- 
man senate, the election of the members, &,c. The answer of Vertot 
was unsatisfactory. 



164 GREAT EVENTS, 

it is the only history of that great society which we possess, 
the chronicles of the Order being inaccessible to most per- 
sons. Vertot died, at the advanced age of nearly eighty 
years, in 1735. 

The Grand-master of the Order, at the time of the sec- 
ond Siege of Rhodes, was Brother Philip de Villiers de 
risle Adam, a native of France. His unsuccessful com- 
petitor had been Andrew d'Amaral, a high officer in the 
Order, and a Portuguese by birth. Amaral had conceived 
a dislike toward I'lsle Adam, before the election, which 
grew into a deadly hatred, when he found that his brother 
Knights preferred his rival to himself It is necessary to 
remember this fact, as the cause of d'Amaral's treachery, 
during the siege, — the only crime of this kind recorded 
in the history of the Order. It is even reported, that 
d'Amaral sent a Turkish slave of his to Constantinople, 
to invite the Sultan to besiege and destroy Rhodes and the 
whole Order, sending him, at the same time, a detailed 
description of the island, with its fortifications. 

The Grand-master prepared for the siege, with all the 
courage and precaution of an old captain, who had passed 
his whole life in war. 

To deprive the Turks of forage, they, by his orders, 
cut down the corn, though it was not yet ripe. Some 
country-houses, as well as churches, situated without the 
town, were demolished, and the materials carried into the 
town, for fear the enemy should make use of their ruins, 
to raise platforms, and plant their artillery on them. As 
another precaution, and in order to be well supplied with 
pioneers, they obliged all the peasants of the country to 
retire into the town, and recalled, at the same time, all 
the adventurers and privateers, that were cruising against 
the Infidels, under the banner of the Order, whose pro- 
tection they had, as well as free admittance and full secu- 
rity, upon occasion, in the port of Rhodes. 

But it was necessary to provide for t'he subsistence of 
these people, as well as for that of the Knights, the citi- 
zens, and the garrison. This was the first care of the 
Grand-master. He appointed three commissioners, for 
that purpose ; and, to give them the greater credit, in 
the execution of their office, he chose them out of the 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 165 

Grand Crosses.* The first was Gabriel de Pommer- 
ols, Great Commander and lieutenant-general to the 
Grand-master ; John Buck, Turcopolier,f of the Lan- 
guage of England, was the second ; and Chancellor d' 
Amaral was named for the third. These three noblemen 
visited all the magazines, carefully ; and, though they 
found most of them full, yet the Grand-master, from an 
opinion that what, on such occasions, is called sufficient, 
does not always prove so, proposed, in the council, to 
send immediately to Naples, Sicily, and Candia, for a 
greater quantity of wheat, wine, powder, and arms ; and 
10 endeavor, likewise, to get five hundred archers and 
bowmen, from Candia, — the Candiotes, in all ages, ex- 
celling even the most warlike nations, in the managing 
of those instruments. The Chancellor, who, as they 
pretend, had sold his religion to the Infidels, in order to 
prevent the effects of the Grand-master's precautions, 
represented, that, by news just arrived from the Christian 
isles of the Archipelago, they were informed, that the 
Turkish armament was not so much designed against the 
isles of the Order, as against that of Cyprus, and perhaps 
Italy itself; that, for nearly forty years, in which he had 
been in the Order, he had frequently observed, that the 
Turks had occasioned it more expense by the jealousy 
that their armaments gave them, than if they had actually 
attacked Rhodes ; that, indeed, the care and precautions 
that the Grand-master took could never be sufficiently 
applauded ; but they might defer the execution of them 
for some time longer, for fear of draining the treasury of 
the Order, in making preparations to guard against a storm, 
that would probably fall on some other place. 

* A class of high officers among the Knights. 

t The Turcopoles, whence the name of Turcopolier is derived , were 
anciently, as William of Tyre relates, a company of light-horse. The 
original of the term came from the Turcomans, who gave the name 
of Turcopoles, in general, to such children as were born of a Greek 
mother and a Turcoman father, and were designed for the war ser- 
vice. It was afterwards a title of military dignity, in the kingdom of 
Cyprus, whence it was adopted into the Order of St. John. But the 
Hospitallers used it, only to signify the colonel-general of the infan- 
*ry. — Vertot 



166 GREAT EVENTS. 

The Grand-master, who was ignorant of the motives 
of this perfidious advice, imputed it only to an injudicious 
spirit of parsimony ; but he declared, that he had letters 
from a faithful spy, whom he kept at Constantinople, and 
on whom he could depend, who assured him, that the 
Grand Signior's armament was designed only for the 
siege of Rhodes : that he had given orders to let no ship 
go out of his ports, that was bound towards Rhodes ; that 
they were laboring hard, in preparing a train of large artil- 
lery, which is never used but in sieges ; that the Sultan 
had caused a great quantity of tools to be made, proper 
for pioneering ; and that most of the troops were filing 
towards Lycia, where they were to embark, in order to 
be transported into the isle of Rhodes. 

The Grand-master's advice prevailed. They obtain- 
ed wheat, from Naples and Sicily, so that there was no 
want of any thing, during the whole course of the siege, 
but powder, which happened through the treachery of 
the Chancellor, who made a false report of the quantiiy 
in the magazines. They had also like to have wanted 
wine, through the same perfidiousness ; the Chancellor 
having, under a pretence of thriftiness, rejected the pro- 
posals of three merchants of Rhodes, who offered to 
supply the city with it, at a reasonable price. But the 
Grand-master, whose vieWs extended on all sides, sent 
into Candia,* a serving brother, Anthony Bosio by 
name, uncle to the author of the Annals of the Order^ 
with orders to provide great store of wine, and to pro- 
cure leave, also, from the Governor of the island, to levy 
five hundred foot. Bosio, arriving in Candia, had no 
difficulty in getting the wine, which he shipped off, in 
fifteen brigantines ; he was even cunning enough to engage 
a young Venetian gentleman, whose name was Bonaldi, 
and who had, at that time, in the port of Candia, a ship 
freighted with wine, and bound for Constantinople, to 
alter his course, and carry it to Rhodes. 

But the serving brother did not find it so easy a mattei 
to levy soldiers. The Governor not only denied hin: 

* Candia belonged, at that lime, to the Republic of Venice. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 167 

leave, but, as if he dreaded Soliman's resentment, for 
bade, by sound of trumpet, all persons, whatsoever, under 
pain of corporal punishment, to hst themselves with the 
Grand-master's agent, or quit the island. Notwithstand- 
ing which, the dexterous Rhodian made a shift to get his 
recruit, and above five hundred men, disguised like mer- 
chants and seamen, on board the brigantines, either un- 
known to the Governor, or without his being willing to 
take notice of it. This cunning negotiator did another 
piece of service to the Order, before he set sail. There 
was, at that time, in the isle of Candia, an excellent en- 
gineer, Gabriel Martinengo, by name, a gentleman of 
Brescia, a subject of the repubhc,* and of an ancient 
and illustrious family. The senate had given him a pen- 
sion of twelve hundred crowns, to superintend all the 
fortifications of that island. Bosio, who foresaw how 
useful a man of his abilities would be, in a place that 
was besieged, proposed to him to go to Rhodes, and to 
share with the Knights in the glory which they hoped to 
acquire, in the defence of it. Martinengo, a man of true 
valor, and who was both a brave soldier and a great en- 
gineer, offered cheerfully to accept his invitation, provid- 
ed he could procure a discharge from the Governor. 

Bosio departed for Rhodes, with his soldiers and pro- 
visions of wine. The Grand-master sent him immediately 
back to Candia, with a letter to the Governor, wherein 
he entreated him, in the most pressing terms, to give 
that officer leave to come and defend a place, which 
served for a bulwark to the very islands of the repub- 
lic. But the Governor flatly refused to grant this re- 
quest, and went so far as to send for Martinengo, and give 
him express orders, not to stir out of the island. But that 
officer, not troubling himself about the consequences, put 
on a disguise, and, in concert with Bosio, came to the sea- 
side, and got on board a felucca, that waited for him in a 
by-creek of the isle. 

The Governor, having notice that the engineer had 
disappeared, caused a strict search to be made after him, 

* Of Venice. 



168 GREAT EVENTS. 

In the principal houses. He sent to his own, where he 
confiscated all his effects ; and, not questioning but he 
had embarked in some passage-ship, he sent two galleys 
to pursue him, with orders to bring hnn back, dead or 
ahve. Martinengo and Bosio, seeing themselves pur- 
sued, took down the mast of the felucca, drew their oars 
into their vessel, and brought it close under a rock of the 
island, covering it with sails, made of whitish linen, almost 
of the same color as the rock that the felucca lay under. 
By this artifice, and perhaps by the secret connivance 
of the Governor, they escaped the galleys, which return- 
mg back into the port, they set sail, passed, in the night 
time, through some Turkish vessels, which, by means of 
Bosiu's speaking the Greek language, took the brigantine 
to belong to their own squadron, and arrived safe at 
Rhodes. Martinengo was mighty well received by the 
Grand-master, who knew his birth and his talents. The 
principal commanders, following his example, showed 
him the utmost respect. Every body was striving to 
show him how sensible they were of his merit. Marti- 
nengo, also, was delighted to see himself esteemed by that 
noble body of Knights, the best judges of valor, and which 
was composed of the most illustrious persons, in all the 
states of Christendom. From these sentiments, that 
savored perhaps too much of human nature, he passed 
to those of a particular veneration, when he saw these 
Knights and warriors preparing themselves, like Christians 
and true rehgious, for the defence of religion. Under a 
soldier's habit, and with a mihtary equipage, he admired 
their contempt of the world, their lively faith, and sincere 
disengagement from the things of this life : he was partic- 
ularly edified, to see most of them preparing themselves 
for a bloody siege, by a frequent receiving of the sacra- 
ments. 

These reflections gave rise to his vocation. He saw 
himself exposed to the same dangers, without the same 
holy preparation. God touched his heart ; he ran to the 
Grand-master's palace, threw himseif at his feet, and, 
inflamed with zeal to sacrifice his life for the defence of 
the faith, entreated that prince to honor him with hi.s 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. . 169 

cross. The Grand-master took him up, and embraced 
him tenderly, assuring him, that he would immediately 
propose his request to the council, and acquaint them 
with his pious dispositions. The votes were unanimous 
in his favor ; the whole Order was delighted to associate 
so excellent a man in it. The Grand-master gave him 
the habit, and administered the vows to him, in a full 
assembly ; and, to acknowledge the generosity where- 
with he had abandoned his patrimony, and the great pen- 
sions he had from the republic of Venice, the Order 
assigned him a pension of twelve hundred crowns, till 
such time as he might have some commandry or priory,* 
of the hke value given him. As a further favor to the 
new Knight, the Grand-master made him, the next day, 
a grand cross, and gave him, at the same time, the gen- 
eral inspection over all the fortifications ; and the Grand- 
marshai, who is standing General of all the troops of the 
Order, divided, as it were, his authority with him. He 
admitted him, out of the high regard he had to his great 
capacity, into the command and authority which his post 
gave him over all the forces in the island. 

It was by the advice and directions of Martinengo, 
that they repaired the walls and towers. He caused 
them to raise the ramparts higher ; they built ravelins 
before the gates of the city ; made casemates in the 
flanks of the bastions, and in the counterscarp of the 
ditch mines, filled with powder, to which they might set 
fire by the help of a train laid under ground. Within 
the place, he caused them to build new forts, cuts, ditch- 
es, intrenchments, barricades, and all kinds of necessary 
defences, that a person of his capacity, who foresaw 
every thing that might happen, could oppose against the 
attacks of the besiegers. 

Whilst the Order was receiving such advantages from 
his skill and his great talents, particularly at a time when 
they were going to be besieged, there happened a kind 
of desertion among the Knights of the Language of Italy. 

* Commandry or priory was the command over and enjoy- 
ment of revenues of a certain amount of land, &c., belonging to the 
Order. 

i5 G. E. 



170 GREAT EVENTS. 

The Principal of that nation complained to the Grand- 
master and the council, that Pope Adrian the Sixth, who 
had just succeeded Leo the Tenth, disposed, in an abso- 
lute manner, and contrary to their rights, of all the com- 
mandries of Italy, and thereupon asked leave to go to 
Rome, to complain of it. The Grand-master did not 
think fit, in the present juncture, to grant them the leave 
they desired. His refusal exasperated them ; and d'Am- 
aral, who lost no opportunity of weakening the Order, 
insinuated to them, that they themselves ought to take 
a permission which he denied them ; that I'Isle Adam, 
who was a Frenchman by birth, did not love the Lan- 
guage of Italy ; that, in order to keep them low, he was 
not perhaps concerned at the Pope's taking from them 
the commandries annexed to their Language ; that the 
Grand-master spread and encouraged the reports of an 
approaching siege, whh the view only of having a pre- 
tence to dispose the more freely of the funds that were 
in the treasury of the Order ; and that, after all, it would 
be a dishonor to them, if, after shedding their blood, so 
often, in the defence of the Order, they should, by an 
odious distinction, be the only persons deprived of the 
recompense so justly due to their services. 

The Italian Knights, seduced by this perfidious advice, 
left Rhodes, without leave, and retired into the isle of 
Candia. The Grand-master, justly provoked at so 
scandalous a disobedience, ordered them to be prosecut- 
ed, as rebels and deserters ; and the council deprived 
them of the habit, by an express sentence to this pur- 
pose. However just this sentence might be, the Order 
nevertheless lost in them, a considerable number of val- 
iant Knights. Some of their friends, better affected than 
the Chancellor, went over to Candia, with the Grand- 
master's private consent ; and, after having dexterously 
entered into their complaints and resentments, represent- 
ed to them, that there was no longer any doubt to be 
made of the siege of Rhodes ; that they would see the 
island immediately covered ovet with the Turks ; and 
that, though the motive of their journey to Rome was 
never so just, they yet could not prevent their enemies 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 171 

spreading a report, that they had made it, at such a junc- 
ture, with a view only of getting out of the way of those 
dangers to which their brethren were going to be ex- 
posed. 

The certainty of the siege of Rhodes, and the fear 
they were under of being suspected to have withdrawn 
themselves, from so cowardly a motive, prevailed over 
their resentment. They returned to Rhodes, to throw 
themselves at the Grand-master's feet ; and, that they 
might obtain pardon for their fault, they protested, that 
they would wash it out with their blood, and with that of 
the Infidels. The Grand-master received them like a ten- 
der father ; and, after having given them a wise reproof, for 
their disobedience, the generous old man embraced them, 
with great tenderness, gave them the habit, again, and 
promised them, that, as soon as they should be free from 
the war, with which they were threatened, the whole 
Order should interest itself in their affair ; that he would 
make it his own ; and that, as their complaints were just 
and reasonable, he was in hopes, that the several princes 
of Christendom would not refuse him their good offices 
with the Pope. 

This storm being happily calmed, the Grand-master 
immediately despatched Knights to all the courts of Eu- 
rope, who were to solicit the Pope and the other princes 
of Christendom to send him speedy succors. But the 
event showed, that the Order could depend on nothing 
but its own strength. Most of the princes, engaged in 
war with one another, and minding only their private in- 
terests, neglected those of religion ; and the Pope him- 
self, though a virtuous pontiff, yet, as he owed his dignity 
to the credit and recommendation of the Emperor Charles 
the Fifth, whose preceptor he had been, he durst not 
dispose of the troops and money of the Holy See, with- 
out his privity and consent. 

The Grand-master, being in no certainty of these re- 
mote succors, placed all his confidence in the protection 
of. Heaven, and in the valor of his Knights. Like a 
thorough soldier, he neglected no precaution necessary to 
prevent being surprised by the Infidels. One of the first 



172 GREAT EVENTS. 

of his many cares, so worthy of his zeal and courage, was 
a general review of all the Knights and regular troops ; 
which amounted, in all, to about six hundred Knights, and 
four thousand five hundred soldiers ; and, with this hand- 
ful of men, he undertook to defend the place against the 
inundations of those formidable armies, that Soliman 
brought into the field, in all his enterprises. The towns- 
men, indeed, of Rhodes, took up arms, and some com- 
panies were formed out of them. They also recalled 
the Rhodian privateers, that were out at sea ; these were 
posted in the town, and were charged with the defence of 
the port. The country peasants were designed to serve 
as pioneers ; but they could not afterwards make any use, 
at all, of the common people of the town, who were in- 
sensible to any passion, but that of fear, and could never 
be brought to look danger in the face. The Grand- 
master gave brother Didier Tholon of St. Jaille, baihfF 
of Manosque, the direction of the artillery, and the Chev- 
aliers de Nueres and Britto were intrusted with the car- 
rying on of the works, under the orders of the Bailiff de 
Martinengo, The slaves of Rhodes, and such as be- 
longed to the private persons, were employed in hollow- 
ing the ditches, and in the fortifications which they added 
to the bastion of Auvergne. They repaired the mills ; 
they built new ovens ; the port was shut up with a double 
chain, one, before its mouth, the other, within it, from 
the tower of St. Nicholas to the tower of the mills ; and, 
to prevent the Infidels from seizing on the mole, as they 
had attempted, in the former siege, and advancing, by 
means of that bank, as far as the gate of St. Catharine, 
they sunk, at the entrance of the bay, where the Tunny 
fishery was, several ships, laden with stones. The walls 
were, at the same time, lined with artillery. They car- 
ried arms, grenadoes, fire-pots, and large stones, upon 
the ramparts and bastions. There never had been seen 
a greater diligence, or a more complete order. 

The Knights and the Greek gentlemen, the townsmen 
as well as officers, the soldier and mariner, the ver^ 
priests and monks, each of these employed himself, read- 
ily and without confusion, upon whatever was prescribed 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 173 

him. The Grand-master was present, in all places. 
He, alone, inspected the carrying on of these several 
works ; his presence and capacity advanced them still 
more than the many hands employed about them ; and 
few princes and governors ever gave such manifest proofs, 
in a besieged place, of so perfect an understanding of the 
art of war, joined to a calm valor, incapable of being dis- 
composed, either by the greatness or the variety of the 
dangers with which he was afterwards surrounded. 

The city of Rhodes, as we have already observed, is 
situated by the seaside, on a hill, which terminates, with 
a gentle descent, into a plain, thereby making the circum- 
vallation of it easy. It is divided into the high and low 
town. The Grand-master's palace was in the high town, 
and served as a castle and a citadel to it, at the same 
time. All the Knights were lodged near the Grand-mas- 
ter's palace, in the same quarter ; and all the secular and 
married persons, as well townsmen as artificers, dw^elt in 
the lower town. The place, on the side towards the 
country, seems to be of a round figure ; but, when seen 
from the sea, represents a perfect crescent. There are 
two ports belonging to it ; the larger is square and spa- 
cious, but not very safe when certain winds blow. At 
the entrance of this port, on the right, stands the tower 
of St. Nicholas, a monument of the liberality of Philip, 
the good Duke of Burgundy. This tower, well provided 
with artillery, was joined to a bastion, that lay behind it, 
and had a curtain, which ran up to the walls of the town, 
and made one of the sides of the port. On the other 
side, over against this tower, stood an old castle, to 
which the Knights gave the name of the castle of St. An- 
gelo. This castle, and the tower, which were somewhat 
more than a hundred yards distant from one another, were 
built upon the two rocks, upon which it is pretended that 
the feet of the great brazen Colossus stood, in former 
times, and which was of so prodigious a bulk, that the 
greatest vessels, as we are told, might pass, with all their 
sails spread, between hs legs. The bastion, adjoining to 
the tower of St. Nicholas, was, by the seaside, provided 
with nine great pieces of cannon, which commanded the 
15* 



174 GREAT EVENTS. 

entry of the port, so entirely, that no ship could enter in, 
on any side. The litde port, or port of the galleys, was 
covered, towards the sea, with a narrow neck of rock, 
that ran out from the firm land, and had a castle upon it, 
called, by the Knights, the casde of St. Elme, or St. 
Erme. This port is more secure than large, and may 
hold several galleys ; but the mouth of it is so narrow, 
that there cannot above one enter, at a time. They 
shut it up, every evening, with a chain, that was fastened 
to a little tower, at the further end of a mole which runs 
about twenty-five or thirty paces out into the sea ; the oth- 
er end of the chain was fastened to a piece of rock, that 
jutted out from the land, seven or eight paces from the 
castle. Near the port of the galleys stood the arsenal, 
where they used to be built ; and over against the bas- 
tion, which is between the two ports, there is a large 
tower, with a ditch, and three great pieces of cannon, 
which defended the entrance of this last port. Above 
the prince's palace and the inns of the Languages, were 
a great number of churches, among which, that of St. 
John, the patron of the Order, was remarkable for the 
greatness of the edifice, and the height and fine workman- 
ship of its steeple. All these noble buildings, together 
with the fortifications, both ancient and modern, made 
Rhodes one of the finest cides of the East. It was sur- 
rounded by a double (others say with a triple) enclosure 
of walls, fordfied with thirteen large towers, built after 
the antique fashion, five of which lay within a sort of 
ravelin and bastion, which the historians of the time call 
bulwarks ; and these bulwarks were covered by barbicans, 
or faussebrayes,* and other advanced works. The ditch 
was large and deep ; the counterscarp well faced and 
palisadoed. All that lay open, in the parts adjacent to 
the place, was exposed to an infinite number of batteries, 
composed of cannon of different bores, according to the 
nearness or distance of the places in view. Rhodes 
seemed to defy an attack, on all sides ; and from the 
glacis to the body of die place, there was nothing but for- 

* Small mounds of earth, about twenty-four feet wide, erected on 
evel ground at the foot of a rampart. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 175 

tifications, heaped one upon another, and batteries, that 
suffered no approaches to be made, without danger and 
loss of men. 

We have said, upon the credit of the historians of that 
age, that there were five bulwarks, or bastions. The 
Grand-master committed the defence of them to five old 
Knights, who had given signal proofs of their capacity and 
courage, on many occasions. The Chevaher de Mesnil 
had the care of defending the bastion of Auvergne ; 
Brother Francis de Carrieres was posted in that of 
Spain ; Nicholas Hussey was to command in that of 
England ; Berenger de Lioncel in that of Provence ; 
and Andelot Gentili undertook to defend the bastion of 
Italy. The Grand-master distributed, at the same time, 
the best part of his troops upon the ramparts, and divided 
them, according to their quarters. Brother Raimond de 
Ricard, the oldest Commander of the Language of Prov- 
ence, was at the head of a brigade, to take care of a post 
that bore the same name. Raimond Roger, of the Lan- 
guage of Auvergne, was pitched upon for the quarter of 
his Language ; Joachim de St. Aubin, with the French 
Knights, was to defend the wall, from the Franque tower 
as far as the gate of St. Ambrose, and from that gate as 
far as that of St. George. The Germans were posted 
under the conduct of the Commander Valdners ; William 
Ouazon commanded in the quarter of the Enghsh ; George 
Emar in that of Italy ; John de Barbarar and Ernard 
Sollier were to defend the posts of Castile and Aragon, 
where the ditches were neither broad nor deep enough. 
The quarter called St. Marie de la Victoire,* was still 
weaker ; the Grand-master undertook the defence of it 
himself, quitted his palace, and lodged at the foot of the 
wall, with some Knights that he had reserved to fight un- 
der his own command, and near his person. 

Besides this distribution, the Grand-master chose, like- 
wise, four lords, all of them grand-crosses, to whom they 
ga,ve the title of adjutant captains, or generals, who, with 
the companies under their command, were a sort of corps 

* St. Mary of the Victory. — I. 



176 GREAT EVENTS. 

de reserve, and were to march to such places as were 
most pressed. The first of these captains was d'Ama- 
ral, whose fidelity they did not, as yet, suspect. His 
business was, to sustain those that defended the posts of 
Auvergne and Germany ; Brother John Buck, Turco- 
polier* of the Order, and a Knight of the Language of 
England, was appointed for the quarter of Spain and 
England ; Brother Peter de Cluys, Grand Prior of 
France, was to sustain those of his own nation, and the 
posts of Castile and Portugal ; and Brother Gregory de 
Morgut, Grand Prior of Navarre, was assigned to march 
to the succor of the posts of Provence and Italy. The 
Grand-master added to these four lords. Brother Gabriel 
de Pommerols, his lieutenant-general, who, without hav- 
ing any settled post and quarter, was to go to all places 
where there should be need ; and the Grand-master, at 
the head of his guards, commanded by the Chevalier de 
Bonneval, of the Language of Auvergne, reserved the 
same function to himself. 

We have already observed, f that, before the first siege, 
they carried into the city a statue of the Holy Virgin, 
which was revered in a church dedicated to her, and 
built upon Mount Philerme. They took the same pre- 
caution, before this second siege, and all the clergy and 
people went in procession to the church, to take it, and 
brought it into the city, (whereof she was considered as 
the protectress,) and deposited it in the church of St. 
Mark. 

The tower of St. Nicholas being looked upon as the 
most important post, and as the key of Rhodes, the 
Grand-master intrusted the defence of it to Brother 
Guyot de Castelane, of the Language of Provence, an 
old Knight, who had distinguished himself by a great 
number of brave actions. Twenty Knights and three 
hundred foot entered into the fortress, under his com- 
mand ; they gave six hundred men to the Knights, Claude 
de St. Prix and John Boniface, both Frenchmen, and to 

* See note on p. 165. 

t In a part of Vertot's Work previous to that from which this ac- 
count is extracted. — I. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 177 

Lopez d'Aiala and Hugh Capon, Spaniards, to patrol 
round the city, night and day, in their turn, and to main- 
tain good order in it, with power to judge and condemn 
maleiactors to deatli, reserving, however, a hberty of ap- 
peahng to the Grand-master. This prince, fearing that 
the four grand-crosses, whom he had chosen for adjutant- 
captains, would not, during the course of the siege, be 
sufficient to carry reHef to all places that should be at- 
tacked, added four others to them ; namely, Anastasius de 
Sainte Camelle, Guyot Dazas, French Knights, and Ma- 
rin Furfan and Raimond Marquet, Spaniards, and gave 
each of them a company of one hundred and fifty men. 
The Grand Marshal, according to the rights of his office, 
gave the great standard of the Order to Anthony de Gro- 
lee, of the province of Dauphine, a Knight of distinguish- 
ed valor, and well worthy of so honorable a trust. The 
Chevalier de Tinteville, a relation of the Grand-master's, 
was appointed to carry the standard of the holy crucifix, 
and the Chevalier Henri de Mauselle, one of the officers 
of the Grand-master's household, carried his particular 
standard. 

Whilst the Grand-master was employed in assigning 
the Knights their several employments, and the quarters 
which they were to defend, they saw that the Turks were, 
in the night, making signals of fire, upon that part of the 
coast of Lycia that lies opposite to the isle of Rhodes. 

The Grand-master, that he might not neglect any 
thing, ordered a French Knight,* whose name was Men- 
netou, to take his pink,f and go with a Rhodian, named 
Jaxi, who spoke the Turkish language, to find out the 
meaning of those fires. The French Knight, pursuant to 
his orders, put to sea, and, coming pretty near the coast, 
perceived several Turkish soldiers, disguised like mer- 
chants, standing by the side of a fountain. Jaxi asked 
them the reason of their signals, and inquired, at the same 
time, for a Turkish merchant of his acquaintance, who 
h^d formerly traded at Rhodes. They answered him, 

* Relation du commandeur de Bourbon, p. 13. 
t A small sailing ship. 



178 GREAT EVENTS. 

that that merchant was not far ofF ; that he was coming 
thither ; and that he might see him, if he would come 
ashore. The Rhodian excused himself, unless they 
would send a hostage to his commander. The Turks 
agreed to this, and the exchange was made ; but, as soon 
as Jaxi was ashore, these perfidious wretches, contrary 
to the law of nations, bound him, hurried him away, in 
all haste, to Constantinople, and delivered him to Pyrrhus 
Basha, the author and director of this piece of treachery. 
Mennetou thought to take his revenge on the Turkish 
hostage ; but, when he came back to Rhodes, they found 
that he was only a sorry peasant, whom they had dressed 
in a silk vest, and from whom the Grand-master and 
council could get no manner of information. 

In the mean time, Pyrrhus, having the Rhodian in his 
power, endeavored to get an account, from him, of the 
state of the city of Rhodes ; and, not being able to gain 
upon him, by civilities and hopes of great reward, he 
put him to such violent torture, for several days together, 
that the Greek, no longer able to bear it, answered the 
interrogatories that were put to him, and died, soon after. 
Pyrrhus acquainted the Grand Signior with the Rhodi- 
an's deposition, and assured his master, that there were 
not above five or six thousand men, in arms, at Rhodes. 
Soliman resolved immediately to begin the siege ; but, 
as it was a rule with him never to begin any war, without 
a previous declaration of it, he sent one by an express, 
who went into Lycia, and, according to custom, made 
the usual signals with fires. 

The Grand-master sent a Knight, with a galley, on 
board of which the Turks threw a packet of letters tied 
to a stone. He carried the packet to the Grand-master, 
and it was opened in full council : they found in it, a let- 
ter of Soliman, in the form of a declaration of war, di- 
rected to the Grand-master, to the Knights in general, 
and to the citizens and inhabitants of Rhodes. This let- 
ter of defiance was drawn up pretty nearly in these terms : 

" The continual robberies with which you infest our 
faithful subjects, and the insult you ofl^er to our Imperial 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 179 

majesty, oblige us to require you to deliver up to us, im- 
mediately, the island and fortress of Rhodes. If you do 
it readily, we swear, by the God who made heaven and 
earth, by the six-and-twenty thousand prophets, and the 
four musaphi that fell from heaven, and by our great 
prophet, Mohammed, that you shall have free liberty to 
go out of the island, and the inhabitants to stay there, 
without the least injury being done to you : but, if you 
do not submit, immediately, to our orders, you shall all 
be cut to pieces, with our terrible sword, and the towers, 
bastions, and walls, of Rhodes shall be laid level with the 
grass that grows at the foot of all those fortifications." 

This letter was no great surprise to the council ; and 
they resolved, if the Grand Signior should attack the isl- 
and, to answer him only with their cannon. But, before 
the enemy appeared, and they were obliged to enter upon 
action, the Grand-master ordered them to prepare them- 
selves for it, by fasting and prayer. He himself first set 
them the example, and the moments which he could spare 
from the toils of government, he spent in devotion before 
the altar. Fontanus, a contemporary historian, and eye- 
witness of what passed at the siege, in the relation of it, 
which he has left us, observes, that the Knights and citi- 
zens of Rhodes had as much confidence in his prayers as 
in his valor ; and it was a common saying, among them, 
that, under so pious a prince, Heaven would interpose, 
for the preservation of his dominions. 

As the isle of Rhodes was inhabited by two different 
nations, each of them had their own Metropolitan, both 
in the nomination of the Grand-master. Leonard Bales- 
teln then enjoyed that dignity, with regard to the Latins, 
and a caloyer or monk of St. Basil, called Clement, was 
Archbishop of the Greeks. These two prelates lived in 
a perfect harmony, and made it their whole business to 
maintain peace between the people of their dioceses. 
The Latin Archbishop was a very fine speaker : he was 
one of the most eloquent preachers of his age. How- 
ever, as the Turks always treated their Greek subjects 
more favorably than the Latins, the Grand-master was 



180 GREAT EVENTS. 

not without apprehensions, that the Greek inhabitants of 
the isles of the Order might possibly be seduced, by this 
distinction in their favor ; and therefore engaged the two 
Metropolitans, in their sermons, to exhort their flocks to 
fight courageously against the enemies of the faith. 

Both the prelates acquitted themselves, in this point, 
with zeal, and succeeded in it, without difficulty. The 
fidelity of the Rhodians, to the Order, was not to be 
shaken : not only from the inviolable attachment which 
they discovered for the true religion, but, likewise, be- 
cause the Knights had always governed with great justice 
and moderation ; the surest bond in Nature, between a 
sovereign and his subjects. 

In the mean time, the Turkish fleet set sail ; thirty gal- 
leys advanced before it. The commander, as he passed 
along the coasts of the isle of Lango, or Coos, landed 
some troops, to ravage it : but these plunderers were so 
vigorously charged, upon their landing, by Prejan de Bi- 
doux. Great Prior of St. Giles, Governor of the island, 
that they were forced to reembark, with some loss. This 
commander being informed, by the prisoners which he 
took, that those galleys, and the main body of the fleet 
which followed them, were steering directly for Rhodes, 
sent, after they were gone by, to ask the Grand-master's 
leave, to come to him, and serve the Order, in the siege. 
The Grand-master, who knew his capacity and long ex- 
perience in war, w^as equally aftected with his zeal and 
courage. He readily sent him the orders that he asked ; 
and the brave Knight, upon the receipt of them, went on 
board a brigantine, and in the night time got into the port 
of Rhodes, without being discovered by the Turks that 
lay off it, at sea. The Grand-master embraced him ten- 
derly, commended him highly, and, not to leave his tal- 
ents, and particularly his vigilance, unemployed, gave him 
the commission of visiting the several posts of the place, 
and of commanding at all the batteries, jointly with the 
Bailiff of Manosque. 

They likewise brought over, at the same time, from 
the other isles of the Order, and particularly from Niz- 
zaro, the greatest part of the inhabitants, a brave set of 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 181 

men, used to cruise at sea, and combat against the Infi- 
dels. The Grand-master took this resolution, because 
the only thing they had to do, in this war, was, to save 
the capital ; and, if the Order could but maintain its 
ground, there, the other islands would be either pre- 
served, or at least more easily recovered. 

When these inhabitants were landed, they put them, 
with provisions, into the castles of Lindo, Feracle, and 
the other fortresses of the island. Some gallant Knights 
were likewise put into those places, to command them. 
Their orders were, if they should be besieged, to hold 
out, as long as possible, to gain time, and put off the 
siege of the capital; and, if the Infidels did not attack 
them, to go often out on parties, and try to surprise the 
stragglers from the main army. 

The Turkish fleet, after making the coast of Lycia, 
appeared, at last, within sight of Rhodes, and stopped in 
a shallow water, about eight miles or three leagues from 
the city ; but, not finding a good bottom, and the place 
being, likewise, at that season, exposed to the westerly 
winds, Curtogli weighed anchor, set sail, and went to 
land on the other side, on a lee-shore, where there was 
a good anchoring place, called Parambolin, six miles from 
the city. There afterwards came thither, from the ports 
of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, a great number of vessels 
and galleys, laden with troops and ammunition ; so that, 
when the Turks had all their forces together, they com- 
puted no less than four hundred sail, in their fleet ; and 
the land army consisted of a hundred and forty thousand 
men, without reckoning sixty thousand pioneers, which 
Soli man had drawn out of the frontiers of Hungary, and 
the mountains of Servia, Bosnia, and Walachia, where 
most of them had been bred to digging under ground and 
working in mines. 

The Grand-master, upon the enemies' approach, quit- 
ted his palace, and posted himself near the church of St. 
Marie de la Victoire, to be the more within reach of suc- 
coring the posts that should be attacked. During the first 
thirteen days, the Infidels made no motion, at all ; only 
their galleys, flat-bottomed vessels, and barks, were con- 

16 G. E. 



182 GREAT EVENTS. 

tinually transporting their troops from the ports of Fischo 
and Macry into the isle of Rhodes, and they worked, at 
the same time, in landing the heavy artillery, provisions, 
and ammunition. When all was landed, they held a coun- 
cil of war, about the different operations of the army. 
Some ojfiicers were of opinion, that they should begin 
with attacking the castle of Lindo, and the other for- 
tresses of the island, which the Knights had built to hinder 
the making of descents ; and they represented, that the 
troops which were in those places might surprise and in- 
terrupt their convoys, and cut those troopers to pieces, 
that might straggle abroad for forage ; but Peri, or Pyrr- 
hus, Basha, the son of a renegado Epirot, was against this 
sentiment, and represented, that they should lose time, 
which was too precious to be thrown away, in reducing 
these little places ; that they ought to advance directly to 
the capital, the taking of which would make all those cas- 
tles fall, of course ; and, with regard to the parties which 
might disturb their convoys and foragers, they might easily 
secure themselves from any apprehensions of that nature, 
by sending such strong escorts, that the Christians durst 
not attack them. 

The General declared himself for this latter opinion, 
and Rhodes was invested. They began to open the 
trenches, out of the reach of cannon shot ; and, when 
they were nearer the town, the Infidels raised a battery, 
which was immediately dismounted by the artillery of the 
place. Nothing could appear in the plain, but it was im- 
mediately battered, and felt the fury of the cannon ; and 
the Knights, making frequent sallies, killed a great number 
of the Turks, cleared the trenches, and filled up their first 
works. The Turks began them, again, and raised new 
batteries ; but, notwithstanding their being covered with 
sheds, gabions, and shoulder works, nevertheless, the 
Knights, with their continual fire, ruined all their works, 
and destroyed such as managed the artillery of the Infi- 
dels. The sword made a great havoc of what the can- 
non had spared. There was, every day, some skirmish 
or other, and no saUies were made, but all the Turks in 
the trenches were cut to pieces. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 183 

The Turkish soldiers, who were used to make prog- 
nostics fiom the first skirmishes, presaged no good to 
themselves, with regard to the success of the siege. The 
Janizaries, and even their very officers, found the valor 
of the Knights so much superior to the great character 
that had been given them of it, that they complained of 
being led to the slaughter. Besides, through the Grand- 
master's wise precaution, the island was a kind of desert ; 
no inhabitants, no provisions, nor forage ; neither could 
the soldiers straggle abroad, in quest of any, but they 
were presently snapped up, by parties that sallied out 
of the castles of the island ; and these parties, that were 
always lying in one ambuscade or other, killed all that fell 
into their hands, without giving quarter. A war so toil- 
some and bloody ; the extraordinary fortifications of 
Rhodes ; the continual fire of the artillery ; the frequent 
sallies ; the scarcity of provisions, (of which they were 
forced to be very careful, because they could get none 
but from beyond sea ;) the little, or rather no hopes of 
booty, and yet less, of recompense ; in the absence of 
their Sovereign, their small confidence in a young gener- 
al, who had been brought up in the pleasures of the se- 
raglio ; — all this contributed to the distaste, and even the 
murmurings, of the officer as well as the soldier. A spirit 
of mutiny, under a general that had not credit enough with 
them, soon succeeded to these murmurs ; and, if an at- 
tack was to be made, or a sally to be repulsed, the troops 
could not be brought to advance, but with reluctance, and 
like men who did not believe they could vanquish or help 
being vanquished. In fine, the fear of danger made obe- 
dience languish, and all respect for command was lost. 

Peri Basha, to whom Soliman had given particular or- 
ders, to send him an exact account of every thing that 
passed at the siege, thought himself obliged to let him 
know the discouragement and despondency of his army : 
and he observed, in his letter, that nothing but his pres- 
ence could root out the seeds of rebellion, and reanimate 
the courage of his soldiers. The bashas that were left 
about the Sultan, and composed his council, were against 
his committing himself to the hazards of the sea ; but the 



184 GREAT EVENTS. 

Prince, jealous of his glory, and having the example of his 
father, Sehm, and the suhans, his ancestors, before his 
eyes ; and being likewise persuaded, that the mere pres- 
ence of a sovereign surmounts the greatest difficulties, re- 
solved to put himself at the head of his army, and accord- 
ingly set out for Lycia, with a body of fifteen thousand 
men. 

Whilst this Prince was on his march, a Turkish wo- 
man, who was slave to a townsman of Rhodes, either 
from a zeal for her false rehgion, or in hopes of recov- 
ering her liberty, formed an enterprise that a hundred 
thousand Turks could not bring about. As the Knights 
and the Infidels were fighting together, every day, she, in 
order to make a diversion that might facilitate the attacks 
of the Turks, resolved to set fire to the principal places 
of the city ; but, as it was impossible for her to execute 
this project, alone, she communicated it to some other 
slaves of her own country and religion. These slaves, 
influenced by the same motives, and by her persuasion, 
entered into the plot. The woman found a way to give 
the Turkish generals notice of her design ; and, in con- 
cert with them, she, with the conspirators, fixed a day 
for this conflagration, and the quarter wherein they were 
to light it. These measures were so well taken, that 
Rhodes must have fallen, by the enterprise of this wo- 
man, had not one of the slaves providentially dropped 
a word, that discovered the secret of the conspiracy. 
They were immediately seized, and all of them, when 
put to the rack, owned their plot. The woman was the 
only person that did not submit to the force of pain, but 
endured the most violent tortures, without making the 
least confession. But her accomplices being confront- 
ed with her, and maintaining that she was the only per- 
son that engaged them in this conspiracy, the judges or- 
dered her to be hanged. They quartered all the other 
conspirators, and their limbs were fixed up in several 
places of the city, in order to intimidate the rest of the 
slaves, and all that might afterwards be tempted to form 
a like enterprise. 

The Sultan, in the mean time, passing through Caria 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 185 

and Lycia, arrived at Portofischo. His vessels came 
thither, to take him on board, with the troops that serv- 
ed for his escort ; and he came into the isle of Rhodes 
to his camp, where he was received with salvos of artil- 
lery, and the sound of drums, trumpets, and other war- 
like instruments. His presence put a stop to the mur- 
murs of the soldiery, and made them dread a chastise- 
ment. He declared, that the only design of his coming 
was, to punish a rebellious army, and decimate and put 
to death every tenth soldier ; calling them cow^ards, at 
the same time. But Peri Basha, who had a great influ- 
ence over him, represented to him, that the Janizaries, 
and even the bravest of that body of troops, were the 
very men that had appeared most mutinous ; that he 
could not punish them, without discouraging the rest ; 
and that, therefore, in a siege of such difficulty and im- 
portance, it were better to overlook their fault, or else to 
make them sensible of it, by such reproaches as should 
reinspire them with their wonted bravery. 

This Prince, after having concerted with his minister 
what behavior he should put on, with regard to his troops, 
ordered them to appear before him, without their arms, 
and caused them to be surrounded by the fifteen thousand 
men that he had brought with him to the siege. They 
had erected a high and magnificent throne for him. The 
Prince, armed with majesty, ascended it, with a fierce and 
stately air, and sat there, for some time, without once 
opening his lips, casting dreadful looks, on every side, 
which the trembling soldiers considered as the forerun- 
ners of death. At last, breaking this dismal silence, 
'' Was I," says he, "to have addressed myself to sol- 
diers, I would have allowed you to appear before me 
with your arms ; but, since I am forced to direct my 
discourse to wretched slaves, weaker and more faint- 
hearted than women, and who cannot stand the bare 
shout of their enemies, it is not fitting that such cow- 
ards should dishonor our arms, and the characteristics 
of valor. I would gladly know, if, whether upon land- 
ing in this island, you flattered yourselves that the Knights 
would prove greater cowards than yourselves, and, in a 
16* 



186 GREAT EVENTS. 

dread of your arms, should bring you their own, and 
come, in a servile manner, to offer their hands and feet 
to the irons, with which you should be pleased to load 
them. In order to undeceive and cure you of such a 
ridiculous mistake, know, that, in the person of these 
Knights, we are to fight with the flower of the Christian 
world, with brave men, trained up, from their infancy, in 
the profession of arms ; we are to fight with cruel and 
fierce hons, greedy of the blood of Mussulmen, and who 
will not quit their haunt, but to a superior force. It is 
their courage which has excited our own. I imagined 
that, in attacking them, I should meet with an enterprise 
and dangers, that were worthy of my valor. And is it 
from you, base and effeminate soldiers, that I am to ex- 
pect a conquest ? you, that are flying from the enemy be- 
fore you have looked him in the face, and would have de- 
serted, had it not been for the sea that encompasses you ? 
But, before such a disgrace shall happen to me, I am re- 
solved to exercise such exemplary justice on the cowards, 
that the severity of their punishment shall keep such in 
their duty as might be tempted to imitate them." 

Scarce had the Sultan ended these words, when, upon 
a signal given to the armed soldiers that surrounded the 
others, they drew their swords, as if they were going to 
massacre their comrades. Those wretches, at the sight 
of the drawn swords, whose points were turned against 
them, fell upon their knees, and cried aloud to the Sul- 
tan, for mercy. Then Peri and the other generals, in 
concert with the Prince, drew near his throne, with the 
most profound reverence, and besought him, in the most 
submissive expressions, to pardon those soldiers, who, as 
Peri said, had behaved manfully, on other occasions, but 
who, in this, had been unhappily misled by an evil genius 
and a panic terror. The Basha added, that they were 
ready to wash out their faults with their blood, and his 
head should answer to his highness, for their hearty sor- 
row and repentance. Though Soliman's design was only 
to reclaim his troops, and bring them back to their duty, 
yet, in order to keep up, before them, the character of 
an incensed prince, and engage the soldiers to blot out 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 187 

the remembrance of their cowardice, by some daring 
action of extraordinary valor, "I suspend," says he, to 
Peri, " at your request, the punishment of the guihy : 
but let them go seek their pardon in the bastions and 
jpon the bulwarks of our enemies." With these words, 
he dismissed the assembly. 

This Prince's discourse, so seasonably mixed with se- 
i^erity and clemency, inspired the troops with their wont- 
sd boldness and ancient valor. The officers, especially, 
to wipe off the ill opinion the Sultan had entertained of 
■heir courage, demanded eagerly to be placed in the most 
dangerous posts. Those very persons, who, before Sol- 
iman's arrival, had blamed this enterprise, now found it 
3asy and glorious. One would not have taken them for 
the same men : they were all on fire, to signalize their 
courage ; and, to speak properly, it is only from this day 
that we are to date the commencement of the siege. 

The soldiers and pioneers carried on the trenches, 
without intermission. They worked at them in the day- 
time, as well as in the night ; and they were relieved, in 
their turns, by various detachments of troops, that suc- 
ceeded one another. The Grand-master, seeing them 
sustained by strong brigades, did not think fit to continue 
his sallies, in which the loss of one single Knight was of 
greater consequence to him than fifty soldiers to Soli- 
man ; so that the Infidels, having nothing to fear but the 
fire of the place, labored, whh so much vigor, that they 
carried on their works, as far as the counterscarp : and, 
in order to make their lines the stronger, they faced them, 
on the outside, with beams of timber and planks tied to- 
gether. They next augmented their batteries ; from 
which they, for several days together, continually fired 
upon the city. The Turks flattered themselves, that 
they should ruin the fortifications, in a little time ; but 
had notice sent them, by a Jew, who served them as a 
spy, in Rhodes, that their cannon had scarce so much 
as grazed upon the battlements of the wall, whether their 
batteries were ill placed, or the cannon not well pointed. 
He added, that the Knights, from the top of St. John's 
steeple, saw every thing that passed in their camp, and 



188 GREAT EVENTS. 

the parts adjacent ; and that, if the Christians should 
happen to plant some piece of artillery on the top of 
that steeple, they might either kill the Sultan, as he was 
visiting the works, or such as carried his orders. These 
advices determined the besiegers to change the situation 
of their batteries : they pointed one, among the rest, 
against St. John's steeple, which was demolished by the 
first cannon-shot that they fired. 

These barbarians, finding Rhodes covered and buried, 
as it were, under its fortifications, resolved to raise two 
cavaliers,* that should be higher than those works, and 
command the city and bulwarks. The soldiers and pi- 
oneers, by the General's orders, brought earth and stones, 
for several days together, which they placed between the 
posts of Spain and Auvergne, over against the bastion 
of Italy. As these two places lay open, and exposed to 
the cannon of the place, it would be impossible to express 
what a prodigious number of Turkish soldiers and pio- 
neers perished in this work : but Mustapha, in order to 
advance it, made no scruple of throwing away the lives 
of these poor wretches. The work, at last, appeared 
like two little hills, which were ten or twelve feet higher 
than the wall, and absolutely commauded it. 

The General, and the other bashas, then made a distri- 
bution of the several attacks. Mustapha took upon him- 
self that of the bulwark of England ; Peri, that of the post 
of Italy ; Achmet Basha, a great engineer, undertook the 
attack of the bastions of Spain and Auvergne ; but, as 
they seemed to be defended by a numerous artillery, and 
a great number of Knights, the Sultan would have this 
last basha sustained by the Aga of the Janizaries. The 
Begler-bei of Anatolia commanded in the trenches, oppo- 
site to the post of Provence, and the Begler-bei of Rom.a- 
nia was to attack the tower of St. Nicholas. All these 
generals caused a continual fireto be^iad^. 

The post of Germany was the first attacked. The 
Turks planted several batteries against the wall. They 
did not think it could long resist the violence of the can- 

* Mounts or elevations of earth, to lodge cannon. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 189 

non, because it had no platform of earth ; but the Grand- 
master repaired thither immediately, himself; and caused 
it to be supported on the inside, by earth, beams of 
timber, and fascines: and, as the artillery, which was 
placed on the gate of his palace, in a place of great 
height, looked over and commanded the batteries of the 
Infidels, the Christian cannoniers demolished them, and 
broke to pieces their gabions, sheds, and parapets. The 
only remedy was, to make new ones, which, however, 
did not last longer than the first ; the cannon of the town 
did sure execution, and beat uown all at which it was 
levelled, whereas that of the Infidels, on the contrary, 
being ill managed, and pointed against a place of such 
height, and always keeping the same line and point of 
elevation, passed above the wall, and shot at random. 
We may suppose that their gunners were, as yet, wholly 
ignorant of the method of lowering their cannon, and 
making it bear downwards, and against the foot of the 
wall. 

The Basha, discouraged at the little service his batter- 
ies had performed, removed, and planted them against 
the tower of St. Nicholas. We have before observed, 
during the mastership of the Grand-master, d'Aubusson, 
the ill success of the attacks of the Basha Palaeologus ; 
nor was that of the Begler-bei of Romania more success- 
ful. The Basha battered the tower, with twelve great 
brass guns, but had the mortification to see his cannon 
dismounted, and his batteries ruined, by those of the 
tower. To prevent this effect, which was owing to the 
skill of the Christian gunners, he resolved to fire only by 
night, and buried his cannon and gabions in the sand, all 
the daytime. But, as soon as night came, they planted 
them, again, on the platform ; and, above five hundred 
cannon shot striking on the part of the wall that looked 
towards the west, k^was shaken down into the ditch. 

The Basha was in high delight, at the effect of his 
nightly battery, and fed himself with vain hopes of carry- 
ing that work, at the first assault ; but he was strangely 
surprised to see a new wall appear, behind the ruins of 
the first, stren2;thened with a rampart and parapet, and 



190 GREAT EVENTS. 

lined with artillery to keep off all approaches to it. He 
was now forced to take a resolution of beginning anew tc 
batter this second wall. 

Soliman, being advertised of this, sent to reconnoiter 
it. They gave him an account, that this tower was the 
strongest part of the place, not only by its situation on a 
rock, which w^as proof against the sap, and could have 
no mine cut in it, but likewise by the different works ad- 
ded to it, since the last siege : and that, under the reign 
of Mohammed the Second, his grandfather, the Basha 
Palaeologus had been obliged to give over this attack. 
These considerations determined the Sultan to remove 
his batteries to another place. Mustapha, by his orders, 
directed his attack against the principal bastions of the 
place ; a prodigious train of artillery battered them, night 
and day, for a month together. The Chevalier de Bar- 
baran, who commanded at that of Spain, was killed by a 
cannon-ball. He was succeeded in his command, by the 
Chevalier John d'Omedes, (afterwards Grand-master,) 
of the Language of Aragon, who, in defending that post, 
lost an eye, a few days after, by a musket-ball. The 
Turks battered all these bastions, at the same time ; that 
of England was greatly damaged. A new wall, which 
they had made there, was entirely ruined, by the cannon 
of the Infidels ; but the old one stood firm, against all 
the fury of the artillery. The Grand-master ran thither ; 
and, finding the Turks obstinately bent upon that attack, 
he lodged himself at the foot of the wall, and, for fear of 
an assault, caused a reenforcement of fifty Knights to en- 
ter into the bastion. 

That of Italy was in a still worse condition. Seven- 
teen pieces of cannon, firing on it, day and night, had 
almost demolished the whole wall. The Grand-master, 
by Martinengo's advice, in order to get time to make cuts 
and intrenchments behind the breach^ before the Infidels 
could mount to the assault, ordered two hundred men to 
sally out, under the command of a serving brother, called 
Bartholomew, and Benedict Scaramose, an engineer, 
who had been brought up under Martinengo. TheiJ 
threw themselves into the trenches, sword in hand, sur- 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 19 

prised the Turks, killed or put to flight all that they met, 
and, before they made their retreat, filled up a great 
many yards of the trenches. The Turks did not fail, a? 
that expert engineer had foreseen, to hasten to drive them 
back : but, as they were forced to pass by a place that 
lay open and exposed, the artillery, which they had 
pointed on that side, killed a great number of them, and, 
by the help of a continual fire, the Christians, who had 
made the sally, got back into the city, without any con- 
siderable loss. 

While this skirmish lasted, part of the Knights were 
busy in digging ditches, and making crosscuts and in- 
trenchments, to hinder the enemy from making a lodge- 
ment upon the breach ; while others of them, with mus- 
ket-shot, killed all that durst advance near it. The can- 
non of the place played upon and reached such as were 
at a greater distance ; and nothing appeared, but it was 
struck down, immediately. Most of the batteries of the 
Infidels were ruined ; their gabions and sheds were beat 
to pieces ; and their shoulder works could not save those, 
who were employed about the artillery, from being taker, 
off by that of the town. 

A renegado, Soliman's general of the ordnance, a 
man well skilled in his profession, had both his legs car- 
ried off, by a cannon-shot, which also killed five men, 
with the splinters of the planks that it broke to pieces. 
The Turks, without being disheartened, repaired their 
batteries, and kept firing, continually ; and they had so 
great a number of cannon, and such a quantity of powder, 
that they often demolished, in an hour's time, what the 
Christians could hardly repair, in several days. The 
Knights began even to want powder, already. D'Am- 
maral, one of the commissioners appointed before the 
siege, to visit the magazines, had, in order to favor the 
Turks, and disable the Knights from continuing their de- 
fence, made a false report to the council, and declared 
that he had found more powder in the place than would 
serve to sustain the siege, even though it should last a 
whole year. But it was not long, before they found 
to the contrary. The powder they had was diminished, 



192 GREAT EVENTS. 

SO considerably, that they would soon have had none left, 
had it not been for the Grand-master's having made pro- 
vision of saltpetre, and set all the horses of his stable to. 
work, to beat it small, by help of the mills that were in 
the place : the Bailiff de Manosque and the Chevalier 
Parisot were appointed to superintend over this affair. 
However, as they had not so much saltpetre as they 
would have occasion for, the officers of the artillery were 
obliged to fire less frequently, to husband their powder, 
and reserve it for the assaults, which they foresaw the 
Turks would make on the place, whenever the breaches 
should be made larger. 

This misfortune, owing, as it is pretended, to the treach- 
ery of the Portuguese Knight, was attended by another, 
occasioned by some young Knights, while the Turks were 
giving a false alarm to the post of Auvergne. The guards 
were bringing from work a company of slaves, about one 
hundred and twenty, in number, who were ordinarily em- 
ployed in digging the ground, or in drawing stones and 
beams, to make intrenchments. These young Knights, 
meeting them, struck some of them, for diversion's sake, 
just as a body of old Knights were passing by, who were 
marching, in haste, to the post of Auvergne, upon the 
signals made, on occasion of the false alarm that was giv- 
en by the Turks. They, seeing it, immediately imagin- 
ed that those slaves, from an impatient desire of liberty, 
were risen, and that the young Knights attacked them, in 
earnest. Possessed with this notion, they fell upon those 
poor wretches, sword in hand, and cut them to pieces : 
by this unhappy mistake, killing a company of innocent 
men, and depriving themselves of the assistance they re- 
ceived from these slaves, who would have served to sup- 
ply the places of the Christian pioneers, who fell daily, 
in great numbers, either by the enemy's cannon, or by 
musket-shot fired out of fusees, of a large bore, which 
carried as far as the breaches, and into the very city. 

The Turkish general, discovering that these peasants, 
without minding how they exposed their lives, were, by 
Martinengo's directions, making barricadoes, cuts, and 
intrenchments, along the breaches, had chosen out of his 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 193 

army a good number of fowlers, that were excellent 
marksmen. He had placed them upon eminences, that 
were nearest the place, and upon cavaliers, that com- 
manded it, whence they fetched down, with their harque- 
busses, all that appeared upon the ramparts. Martinen- 
go, seeing his workmen killed, without his being able to 
secure them from the enemy's fire, made them, by way 
of a counter-battery, plant some small field-pieces on the 
roofs of the highest houses. These, on their part, killed 
abundance of the fowlers ; but the killing or disabling ten 
of those workmen, did not make the Order amends for 
the death of one Christian soldier or pioneer. The town, 
being reduced to a small number of defendants, could not 
lose one of them, without drawing nearer its ruin ; and 
the Grand-master, in order to protract it, had no resource, 
but either in a speedy succor, or by prolonging the siege, 
and holding out, till the coming of Winter and bad weath- 
er, when he imagined the Turkish fleet would not be able 
to keep the sea. 

The war had hitherto been carried on, between the 
besiegers .and the besieged, by firing at one another ; and, 
though that of the Turks, by reason of the multitude of 
their cannon and the great quantity of their powder, was 
vastly superior, yet they were not masters of one inch of 
ground in the bastions and advanced works of the place. 
The barricadoes and intrenchments served instead of the 
walls that were beaten down. There was no carrying 
these new works, but by an assault ; and, in order to 
make it, it was necessary to try the descent of the ditchj 
or fill it up. Soliman, who had a prodigious number of 
pioneers in his army, made various detachments of them, 
some to throw earth and stones into the ditch ; but the 
Knights, by help of their casemates, carried off, by night, 
wdiat they had thrown in, by day. Other pioneers were 
employed in digging mines, in five different places, in 
each of which they were carried on, towards the bastion 
over against it. Some of them were countermined by the 
vigilance of Martinengo, to whom we are indebted for the 
invention of discovering the place where they were carry- 
ing on, by drums and skins hard braced and stretched. 

17 G. E. 



194 GREAT EVENTS. 

The Turks had worked with so much skill, that the 
several branches of these mines had a communication 
with one another ; and all of them, in order to do the 
greater execution, centred at last in one place. Marti- 
nengo discovered one, in the middle of the ditch of Prov- 
ence, that began at St. John's church. De la Fountaine, 
an engineer, had it broke open, immediately, drove the 
miners out of it with grenadoes, and threw in barrels of 
powder, which burnt and smothered the Turks that were 
in those subterraneous passages. But, whatever pains he 
took, he could not prevent the Infidels from springing 
two mines, one after another, under the bastion of Eng- 
land, the force of which was so violent, that they blew 
up twelve yards of the wall, and the ruins of it filled up 
the ditch. 

The breach appeared so large, and so easy to mount, 
that several battalions of the Infidels, who waited the suc- 
cess of the mine, ran immediately to the assault, with 
great shouts, and sabre in hand. They mounted in a 
moment, to the top of the bastion, and planted seven en- 
signs upon it, and would have made themselves masters 
of it, had they not met a crosscut, or intrenchment, be- 
hind it, that stopped them. The Knights, recovering 
from the confusion into which the terrible noise of the 
mine had thrown them, ran to the bastion, and charged 
the Turks with musket-shot, grenadoes, and stones. 
The Grand-master was, at the very time that the mine 
sprung, in a church, not far off, where he was before the 
altar, imploring from Heaven the succor which the prin- 
ces of the earth refused him. He judged, by the dread- 
ful crash he heard, that the noise, which the mine made, 
would be soon followed with an assault. He rose up, 
immediately, and it happened to be at that very instant 
when the priests of the church were beginning Divine ser- 
vice, and were chanting this preliminary prayer, Deus in 
adjutorium meum intende^ (" O God ! make haste to 
deliver me.") " I accept the omen," cried the pious 
Grand-master ; and, turning about to some old Knights, 
that were with him, " Let us go, my brethren," says he 
to them, '^ to change the sacrifice of our praises into that 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 195 

of our lives, and die, if it must be so, for the defence of 
our holy law." 

He advances, immediately, with his half-pike in his 
hand, mounts upon the bastion, comes up to the Turks, 
breaks, overturns, and kills, all that dare oppose him : he 
pulls down the enemy's ensigns, and recovers the bastion, 
with an irresistible impetuosity. General Mustapha, who 
saw, from the trenches, the consternation and flight of 
his soldiers, sallies out of them, sabre in hand, kills the 
first of the fugitives that he meets, and shows the rest, 
that they would find less safety near their General, than 
they would upon the breach. He advances on, boldly, 
himself ; his reproaches, and the shame of deserving them, 
make the runaways rally about him ; the engagement be- 
gins afresh ; the dispute grows bloody ; fire and sword 
are equally employed, on both sides ; they kill one an- 
other, both at a distance and near, with musket-shot and 
the sword ; they grapple with one another, and the 
strongest or the most dexterous despatches his enemy 
with a stroke of his poinard. The Turks, lying exposed 
to musket-shot, stones, grenadoes, and fire-pots, at length 
abandon the breach, and turn their backs. In vain does 
their General strive, by threats and promises, to bring 
them back to the charge. They all break, and take to 
their heels ; but, in their flight, find a death they were 
afraid of meeting, in the action ; and they made such a 
continual fire of the artillery, from different parts of the 
town, upon the foot of the breach, that they pretend that 
the Turks lost, on this occasion, three thousand men and 
three sanjaks,* or governors of places. 

The Order lost, by this great advantage, the great 
master of the artillery, the Chevalier d'Argillemont, cap- 
tain or general of the galleys, the Chevalier de Mauselle, 
who carried the Grand-master's standard, and several 
other Knights, who were killed, in fighting valiantly. 

Scarce a day passed, but was signalized by some new 
attack. Every general officer, to please the Grand 
Signior, endeavored, at the expense of the soldiers' lives, 
to push on the works, committed to his care. Peri 

* See note on p. 129. 



196 GREAT EVENTS 

Basha, an old captain, notwithstanding his advanced age^ 
distinguished himself, by continual enterprises. He was 
posted against the bastion of Italy, and never gave the 
besieged a moment's repose, either day or night. The 
hopes he had, of carrying that work, made him plant a 
good body of infantry, so as to be concealed behind a 
cavalier, which they had raised on the ditch-side ; and, 
on the thirteenth of September, at daybreak, when the 
besieged, quite spent with fatigue and continual watching, 
were overtaken with sleep, he ordered his troops to make 
the assault. They first despatched the sentinels, passed 
the breach, and were ready to seize the intrenchments ; 
when the Italians, amazed to see the enemy so near them, 
rushed with fury upon the Infidels, who opposed them 
with as much courage and resolution. 

The fight was maintained, by the valor of both, for a 
long time. The Basha stood exposed by the ditch-side, 
whence he sent them, continually, new reenforcements : 
but, while he was exhorting them to merit the recom- 
pense, which the Grand Signior promised to such as 
should distinguish themselves, by their bravery, the Gov- 
ernor of the Isle of Negropont, a young lord of singular 
valor, and Soliman's favorite, was killed by his side, 
with a ball shot from a musket. Peri, either fearing that 
the Grand Signior would impute his favorite's death to 
him, or else desiring to revenge it, redoubled his efforts. 
The Grand-master, whose valor and love for his Order 
multiplied him, as we may say, on this occasion, ran to 
the succor, with a particular body of Knights, that adhered 
to his person. "Let us go," says he to those about him, 
" and repulse the Turks : we should not be afraid of 
men, whom we daily throw into a panic fear." At the 
same time, he charges the Infidels, with his half-pike in 
his hand. The Knights of the Language of Italy, under 
his eye, and in imitation of so great an example, perform 
the most glorious actions : they all expose themselves to 
the greatest dangers. A good number of them were kill- 
ed, on this occasion ; and we must do them this justice, 
that, next to the Grand-master, the saving of Rhodes wa« 
that day owing to their courage and intrepidity. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 197 

Peri, judiciously concluding that it would be in vain 
for him to persist in an attack, which the Grand-master 
himself defended, contented himself with keeping on the 
fight ; and, drawing his body of foot from behind the 
cavaher that served to cover them, he put himself at their 
head, and went to attack a new bastion, built in the 
Grand-master Caretto's time, imagining it not to be so 
well provided with defendants, and that he should be 
able to surprise it. His troops advanced to the assault, 
with great resolution, but were repulsed, with equal vigor, 
by the Chevalier d'Andelot, who commanded at that 
work. The citizens and inhabitants ran to his succor: 
the Turks were soon overwhelmed with showers of gren- 
adoes, stones, bitumen, and boiling oil ; and the artillery, 
planted upon the flanks of the adjoining bastions, scouring 
the ditch, made a horrible slaughter of them. Peri, after 
losing abundance of men, in these two attacks, was forc- 
ed, against his will, to sound a retreat. 

The Janizaries, disheartened at so many unsuccessful 
attacks, murmured, aloud, against an enterprise, wherein 
one or other of their bravest comrades daily lost their 
lives. The Vizier Mustapha, fearing lest these com- 
plaints should reach the ears of Soliman, and that that 
Prince, like most of his predecessors, should make him 
responsible for the ill success, resolved to make a new 
assault on the bastion of England, and either carry the 
place, though he lost never so many soldiers, or die him- 
self, at the foot of the intrenchments. He communicated 
his design to Achmet Basha, who was encamped, and 
commanded in the quarter opposite to the posts of Spain 
and Auvergne. These two generals agreed, that, while 
the Vizier attacked the English bastion, Achmet, in order 
to divide the forces of the besieged, should spring his 
mines, and mount over the ruins they would make upon 
the breaches, and effect a lodgement, there. This enter- 
prise was put in execution, on the seventeenth of Sep- 
tember. Mustapha sallied out of the trenches, at the 
head of five battalions. The troops, sustained by his 
presence, climbed up the rubbish and ruins of the wall, 
mounted boldly to the assault, got upon the breach, and, 
17* 



198 GREAT EVENTS. 

in spite of all the fire of the besieged, made their way as 
far as the intrenchments, and planted some ensigns upon 
them. But they did not keep this first advantage, long. 
A swarm of English Knights, led on by a Commander of 
that nation, whose name was John Buck, sallied out, 
from behind the intrenchments, and, being sustained by 
Prejan, Grand Prior of St. Giles, and the Commander 
Christopher Valdner, of the Language of Germany, made 
so furious a charge, that the Infidels were forced to give 
back. They retired in good order, however, and still 
fighting. Mustapha, a much braver soldier than an able 
general, led on, himself, a reenforcement to their succor. 
The engagement begins, again, with equal fury. The 
Turkish general throws himself into the midst of the 
Knights, kills some of them, with his own hand, and, had 
he been as well followed by his soldiers, Rhodes would 
have been in great danger. But the artillery of the place, 
the little pieces, especially, that played upon the breach, 
and a great number of musketeers, that galled them from 
behind the intrenchments, made so terrible a fire, that 
the Infidels, no longer regarding the menaces of Musta- 
pha, abandoned the breach, and dragged him along with 
them, in their flight. How glorious, soever, this success 
might be to the Order, nevertheless, the Knights paid 
very dear for it ; they lost, on this occasion, the Com- 
manders, Buck and Valdner, several Enghsh and Ger- 
man Knights, and the greatest part of their principal offi- 
cers. 

Achmet Basha was as unfortunate as General Musta- 
pha, in his attack. He sprung his mines, as had been 
agreed between them ; but that which was under the post 
of Auvergne took vent, and did no execution. The 
mine, which played under the post of Spain, threw down 
about four yards of an advanced work, which served for 
a sort of fore-wall. The Turks advanced immediately 
to seize it, but met a body of Spanish Knights upon the 
ruins, who made head against them, and kept them from 
approaching. They fought, for some time, at a distance, 
with musket-shot ; but, as the Turks advanced, in close 
and good order, to break through the besieged, the Chev- 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OP RHODES. 19J 

alier de Mesnil, captain of the bulwark, or bastion, of 
Auvergne, and the Chevalier de Grimereaux, made the 
artillery of their posts play so apropos and continually, 
upon the thickest of the battahons of the Janizaries, that 
those troops, though brave in their persons, and the very 
flower of the army, could stand the fury of it no longer, 
but dispersed themselves, and made the best of their way 
to the trenches. 

Soliman lost, that day, three thousand men ; and the 
Order, besides the chieftains above-mentioned, had like- 
wise several Knights killed, on these two occasions ; and, 
among the rest, Philip de Arcillan, of Spanish extrac- 
tion, whose great valor justly merited him the honor of 
having his name recorded. Prejan de Bidoux, Grand 
Prior of St. Giles, who made all the posts that were at- 
tacked his own, was shot through the neck, with a mus 
ket-ball, but was happily cured of his wound. 

About this time,* theyf discovered the treason of 
the Jewish physician, who, by order of Selim the First, 
had formerly settled at Rhodes, where he served as a 
spy to the Turks. They caught him shooting an arrow, 
with a letter tied to it, into their camp ; upon which he 
was immediately seized, and being, on such strong pre- 
sumptions, put to the torture, he owned that he had given 
the Infidels continual advice of the weak parts of the 
place, and of every thing that passed in it ; and that, 
when he was seized, it was the fifth letter that he had 
conveyed to them, in the same way. His judges con- 
demned him to be quartered ; and it is pretended that 
he died a Christian. His confession of Christianity was 
very much suspected ; but, if he made it only to save his 
life, it stood him in no stead, for he suffered the punish- 
ment he had so justly deserved. 

Soliman, in the mean time, enraged at the little prog- 
ress of his arms, held a great council of war, to which 
he summoned his principal officers. Various opinions 
were proposed in it. Mustapha, who, before the siege, 
out of pure complaisance, had represented the enterprise 

* September 20. t Bourbon, p. 31. 



200 GREAT EVENTS. 

as easy, now, dreading his passion and resentment, pro- 
posed the giving a general assault, and attacking the 
town in four different places, at the same time. 

The Grand Signior approved of this advice. The 
general assault was fixed for the twenty-fourth of Sep- 
tember ; and Soliman, to inspire new ardor into his sol- 
diers, gave out, that he would give them the plundering 
of Rhodes, provided they could take it, sword in hand. 
The Turks, before they gave this assault, made a con- 
tinual fire, with their cannon ; and, in order to enlarge 
the breaches, battered the bastions of England and Spain, 
the post of Provence, and the platform of Italy, for two 
days together. The evening before the assault, the 
Grand-master suspected, by the motions he perceived in 
the enemy's camp, that they were going to attack him. 
He gave out his orders, and the Knights, following his 
example, redoubled their care. But, though they had 
just reason to fear, that the enemy would take their ad- 
vantage, of opening to themselves a passage through the 
ruins of those strongholds that had been battered down, 
in the vast circuit of the walls, they yet were forced to 
regulate their measures by the few troops they had left, 
and to distribute the old commanders and principal offi- 
cers into such posts, as the violence of the attacks, the 
wideness of the breaches, and the defect in the fortifica- 
tions, exposed to the greatest dangers. 

The Grand-master, taking up his weapons, visited all 
the quarters, to see the disposition of his troops, and ex- 
hort them to a noble defence ; and, addressing himself 
to the Knights whom he found in their respective posts, '' I 
should offer violence to your courage," said he to them, 
'' should I pretend to invigorate it, by an harangue ; and 
it would be throw^ing away time, to tell you, what your 
valor has so often inspired into you, on the hke occasions. 
Consider, only, my dear brethren, that we are going to 
fight for our Order, and for the defence of our religion ; 
and that a glorious victory must be the reward of our val- 
or, or else Rhodes, the strongest rampart of Christen* 
dom, must serve us for a grave." Whenever he met 
any of the townsmen and inhabitants, " Think," said 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 201 

he to them, " that, besides the defence of the faith, you 
have taken up arms for your country, for your wives, 
your maidens, and your children : fight gallantly, my 
friends, in order to rescue them from the infamy, with 
which the Barbarians threaten them. Their liberty and 
your own, your blood, your honor, and your fortunes, 
are all in your hands, and depend upon your bravery." 

These few words, pronounced with an heroic ardor, 
had such an effect on all, that the townsmen as well as the 
Knights, and the Greeks no less than the Latins, made 
public protestations, that nothing but death should make 
them abandon their posts ; and, embracing one another, 
in a most tender and affectionate manner, their eyes 
streaming with tears, they bid, as it were, a last adieu to 
each other, resolutely bent either to conquer or die. 

The Turks, at daybreak, made a furious fire from all 
their batteries, especially against the posts which they 
designed to attack ; not only in order to widen the 
breaches, but also to be less exposed to view, as they 
marched through the smoke of the artillery. They 
mounted boldly to the assault, in four different places : 
they had never discovered so much resolution since the 
beginning of the siege, especially the Janizaries, who 
fought under the young Sultan's eye. 

That Prince, in order to animate them by his presence, 
had placed himself on a rising ground, near adjoining, 
where a scaffold was erected for him, whence he, as from 
an amphitheatre, was able to distinguish and judge of the 
valor of those brave fellows, without any danger to him- 
self. The cannon of the place begin to play : this is 
succeeded by showers of arrows and musket-shot. The 
Knights, in all quarters, show their intrepidity, and the sol- 
diers their obedience and courage : some of them burn 
the assailants with boiling oil and fireworks, while others 
roll stones of a vast size upon them, or pierce them 
through, with their pikes. The English bastion was the 
place where there was the greatest bloodshed. It was 
the weakest part of the place, the warmest attacked, and 
withal, the best defended. The Grand-master runs thith- 
er, himself ; his presence, on the one side, inspires the 



202 GREAT EVENTS. 

Knights with fresh ardor ; hope of booty, on the other, 
encourages the Turkish soldier. Never did the Infidels 
discover so much eagerness, in battle ; they mount upon 
the ruins of the wall, through a storm of bullets, javelins, 
and stones : nothing stops them, and several of them 
leaped, like so many desperadoes, from the machines 
which they had brought near the walls, upon the ram- 
parts, where they were soon cut to pieces. The Knights 
throw the Turks from the top of the breach, headlong 
into the ditch : they overturn the ladders, and the can- 
non of the place make so terrible a slaughter, that the 
Turks give way, retire back, and are ready to give over 
the assault. But the General's lieutenant, who com- 
manded at that attack, an officer highly respected among 
the soldiers, for his rare valor, rallies, and leads them 
on to the attack. He himself mounts first upon the 
breach, and plants an ensign upon it. Happily for the 
besieged, a cannon-ball, fired from the post of Spain, 
carries him ofF, and throws him into the ditch. One 
would have thought, that his death would naturally have 
cooled the ardor of his soldiers ; but thirst of revenge in- 
spired them, that instant, with a contrary sentiment, and 
filled their hearts with a sort of rage and fury ; they rush 
on, headlong, into danger, pleased to die, themselves, 
provided they could kill a Christian. But all their im- 
petuosity could not make the Knights retire one single 
step. The priests, the religious, the old men, and the 
very children, resolve to have their share of the danger, 
and repulse the enemy with stones, boiling oil, and com- 
bustible matter. 

Neither did the women yield, in assiduity, to the pio- 
neers, nor was their bravery inferior to that of the sol- 
diers : several lost their fives, in defending their hus- 
bands and children. Historians make mention of a 
Greek woman, of exquisite beauty, who, distracted at the 
death of her lover, and resolving not to survive him, after 
kissing her two children, and making the sign of the cross 
on their foreheads, puts on the officer's clothes, that 
were still dyed with his blood, snatches up his sabre, 
runs to the breach, kills the first Turk she meets, wounds 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 203 

several others, and dies, fighting with a bravery equal to 
the most courageous officer or the most resolute soldier. 

The engagement was carried on with equal fury and 
obstinacy, at the other attacks. The greatest danger 
was at the post of Spain. The Aga of the Janizaries, 
who commanded on that side, led on his soldiers to the 
assault. The artillery of the place killed a great num- 
ber of them, before they could get to the foot of the 
breach. Such of the Turks as are able to cross the 
ditch go to undermine the wall, and are frequently bur- 
ied under its ruins, while others of them make use of 
ladders, to mount up. Some of them heap the dead 
bodies of their comrades on one another, get to the top 
of the wall, in spite of all the opposition of the besieged, 
and penetrate as far as the intrenchments, on which, it is 
said, they planted no less than thirty ensigns. Unhap- 
pily for the Knights, such of them as had the guard of the 
bastion of Spain had like to have been surprised, by not 
standing on their guard. The Turks having showed no 
signs of any design to attack them, those Knights, re- 
proaching themselves for being idle in their post, and see- 
ing the bastion of Italy hard pressed by the Turks, ran 
to their succor, and left only a few sentinels upon the 
bastion of Spain. These soldiers, likewise, contrary to 
all the rules of war, quitted their post, to help the gun- 
ners, in transporting some pieces of cannon, which they 
had a mind to point against the post that the Aga of the 
Janizaries was attacking. Some Turks, who lay con- 
cealed behind a heap of ruins, seeing the bastion aban- 
doned, mount, without being discovered, get to the top 
of the work, make themselves masters of it, cut the gun- 
ners to pieces, pull down the ensigns of the Order, and 
plant those of Soliman in their stead, and, proclaiming 
victory, invite their comrades to join them ; upon which 
the Aga immediately sent a detachment of his Janizaries 
to that place. 

The Grand-master, having notice of this surprise, runs 
thither, in an instant, makes them point the artillery of 
the bastion of Auvergne against a breach which the ene- 
my's cannon had made in that of Spain, keeps the Turks 



204 GREAT EVENTS. 

from approaching it ; and, from another battery, which 
faced the bastion, he makes them fire upon those that 
were in possession of it, and who were endeavoring to 
make a lodgement there. On another side, the com- 
mander of Bourbon, by his orders, at the head of a 
troop of brave soldiers, enters by the casemate into the 
bastion, mounts up to the top, upon the platform, sword 
in hand, in order to drive out the Infidels ; where he finds 
part of them killed by the cannon ; he cuts the rest in 
pieces, again sets up the ensigns of the Order, pulls down 
those of the Turks, and turns the artillery of the bastion 
upon such as were mounting up a breach that had been 
made in that part of the wall wdiich was called the post 
of Spain. The Aga maintained his ground in that place, 
in spite of the gallant resistance of the Knights. The 
Grand-master comes back, thither, at the head of his 
guards, and throws himself into the midst of the Infidels, 
with an ardor which made his Knights tremble, as much 
as his enemies, but from a difi:erent motive. The en- 
gagement begins again, with fresh fury ; the soldiers as 
yet unhurt, the wounded and the dying, all blended to- 
gether, after a combat of six hours, want rather strength 
than courage to continue it. The Grand-master, fearing 
that his men, who were quite spent, with such a long re- 
sistance, should at last be borne down by the multitude 
of their enemies, drew a reenforcement of two hundred 
men, with some Knights at their head, out of the tower 
of St. Nicholas. These troops, who were fresh, and 
had suffered no fatigue, soon changed the face of the en- 
gagement. The Janizaries begin to give back ; and, 
finding themselves pressed by these brave soldiers, aban- 
don the breach, and fly to recover their trenches. Soli- 
man, to cover the shame of their flight, and save the 
honor of his troops, ordered a retreat to be sounded, af- 
ter having left upon the breach and at the foot of the 
wall, upwards of fifteen thousand men, and several cap- 
tains of great reputation, that lost their lives in these dif- 
ferent attacks. 

The Rhodians sustained as considerable a loss as they 
did, in proportion ; and, besides the soldiers and inhabi- 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 205 

tants, they had a great number of Knights killed in thesa 
assaults, among which was the Chevalier du Fresnoi, 
Commander of Romagna, the Commander of St. Cam- 
elle, of the Language of Provence, Ohver de Tressac, of 
the Language of Auvergne, and brother Peter Phihps, 
the Grand-master's receiver. The Chevalier John le 
Roux, surnamed Parnides, had his hand, with which he 
had slain seven Turks, carried off, that day, by a cannon- 
ball. There were few Knights but what were wounded, 
and there scarce remained sufficient enough unhurt to 
continue the service. 

The Sultan, furious at the ill success of this enterprise, 
fell upon his General Mustapha, who, out of complai- 
sance, had advised him to it, and gave orders for his be- 
ing shot to death, with arrows ; a sad recompense for all 
his services, but such a one as slaves and servile cour- 
tiers are frequently exposed to, under the government of 
the Infidels. The army was drawn up, in battle array, 
in order to be spectators of the death of their General ; 
and the unhappy man was already tied to the fatal stake, 
when Peri Basha, provoked at the punishment they were 
going to inflict on his friend, made them defer the exe- 
cution, as he was persuaded that Soliman, when the heat 
of his passion was over, would not be concerned that 
they had prevented such a stain to his glory. As he had 
educated that young Prince, from his infancy, and had 
still a great ascendancy over him, he went and threw 
himself at his feet, and begged him to pardon Mustapha. 
But he found, by his own experience, that lions are not 
to be tamed : Soliman, still in the first transports of his 
wrath, jealous of his authority, and enraged to see there 
was a man in his empire, daring enough to suspend the 
execution of his orders, condemned him, at the same 
time, to undergo the same punishment. The other bash- 
as were in a terrible consternation, and threw themselves 
at his feet, in order to mollify him ; when the Sultan, 
coming to himself, was moved at their tears. He par- 
doned Mustapha and Peri, but would never see Mustapha, 
more, and afterwards sent him at a distance from court, 
under pretence of another employment. 

18 G. E 



206 GREAT EVENTS. 

This Prince, despairing to carry the place, seemed 
resolved to raise the siege ; and it is said, that whole 
companies,. and the heavy baggage, began to file off to- 
wards the sea, in order to reembark ; when an Albanian 
soldier, getting out of the town, came into the Turkish 
camp, and assured them, that most of the Knights were 
either killed or wounded, at the assault, and that those 
who were left were not able to sustain another. They 
pretend, that this deserter's report was confirmed by a 
letter from d'Amaral, who told the Grand Signior that 
the besieged were reduced to the last extremity. 

These several advices determined him to continue the 
siege ; and, in order to show his troops and the besieged 
that he was resolved to pass the Winter before the place, 
he ordered a house to be built on Mount Philerme, for 
himself to lodge in ; giving, at the same time, the com- 
mand of the army to Achmet Basha, an able engineer, 
who changed the method of carrying on the siege. He 
resolved to be as sparing, as possible, of his soldiers' 
blood ; and, before he led them to an assault, to prepare 
for it, by new cannonadings, and particularly by sapping 
and mining, and other subterraneous works, in which hg 
was particularly skilled. 

This new General made his first efforts against the bas- 
tion of Spain, the ditch whereof was narrower and not 
so deep, as in other places ; and, in order to facilitate 
the descent of it, his artillery played, for several days 
together, so furiously upon that work, that he ruined all 
the defences of it ; there was nothing left but the barba^ 
can or faussebraye, which lay so low, that the cannon 
could not hurt it. The Turkish General resolved to run 
his trenches as far as this work, which covered the foot 
of the wall ; but these trenches being seen from the bas- 
tion of Auvergne, the cannon of the Knights played upon 
them. The Turks, in order to shelter themselves from 
It, raised a thick wall before the trenches ; but they could 
not bring these several works to perfection, without the 
toss of an infinite number of soldiers and pioneers. No 
one could show. himself, but he was immediately exposed 
to the fire of the artillery, and a shower of musket-shot ; 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 207 

and the Knights, at the same time, were continually throw- 
ing grenadoes and fire-pots into their works. The 
Turkish General, to guard against them, raised along the 
curtain a gallery, with planks, which he covered with raw 
hides, of which the fire could not take hold. Under 
shelter of this new work, he undermined the wall, while 
other companies of pioneers and miners were continually 
at work, to penetrate under the bastions, and run mines 
through that place. 

These mines having thrown down a great many yards 
of the wall of the post of Spain, the Barbarians advanced 
to the assault ; but, coming up to the breach, they found 
themselves stopped by new intrenchments, lined with 
artillery, the continual fire whereof, after killing a great 
many of their bravest officers, and a prodigious number 
of soldiers, forced the rest to run back to their trenches, 
for shelter. 

The BailifFMartinengo, who was always in action, had, 
in order to hinder the Infidels from coming to reconnoi- 
ter the works he was making within the place, made them 
cut loopholes for the cannon, in the wall of the counter- 
scarp on the side of the town, whence the Knights killed, 
with musket-ball, all that durst advance near it. The 
Turks, after his example, did the like, on their side, and 
a continual fire was kept up, on both sides. Unhappily, 
a random shot, from the trenches, struck Martinengo in 
the eye, just as he was looking through one of those loop" 
holes, to examine the enemy's works ; he fell, upon re- 
ceiving the shot, and they thought him mortally wounded. 
The Order could not have had a greater loss, at such a 
juncture ; for he was, in a manner, the only person that 
directed all operations, and determined the time and pla- 
ces where the Knights should exert their valor. 

The Grand-master, upon the news of his wound, ran 
immediately to the place, and caused him to be carried 
into his own palace. By his care, he was afterwards 
Dured of his wound, — the Knights, and all the people, of- 
fering up their prayers for his recovery. The Grand- 
master filled up his post, in his absence, and undertook 
himself, to defend the bastion of Spain. The Chevalier 



208 GREAT EVENTS. 

de Cluys, Grand Prior of France, the Commander of St. 
Jaille, Bailiff of Manosque, the Bailiff of the Morea, and 
the oldest Knights of the Order, staid about the Grand- 
master's person, in order to share with him, in the perils 
and glory of this defence. Actions of extraordinary 
valor were performed, on both sides ; there were new 
engagements, every day. It would appear very surpris- 
ing, that so small a number of Christians, who had noth- 
ing to cover them, but some barricadoes and weak in- 
trenchments, should be able to hold out, so long, against 
such a prodigious number of assailants, if this handful of 
men had not been composed of old Knights, whose valor 
had been experienced, on a thousand other occasions, 
and who, on this, were unanimously resolved to sacrifice 
their lives for the defence of their religion. Men are very 
strong, and very formidable, when they are not afraid 
of death. 

Historians, speaking of their zeal and courage, use but 
one sort of eulogium, for all these noble soldiers of Jesus 
Christ. Not but there were among these warriors differ- 
ent talents, and more or less capacity, in the arts of war ; 
and we should justly deserve to be censured, if we did 
not do justice to the memory of the Grand-master, who, 
for four and thirty days, that the Bailiff de Martinen- 
go's wound and illness lasted, never stirred from the in- 
trenchment made on the Spanish bastion, nor ever took 
any rest, either day or night, excepting only for some 
moments, on a mattrass, which they laid for him, at the 
foot of the intrenchment ; officiating, sometimes in the 
quality of a soldier and sometimes in that of pioneer, but 
always in that of general, if we except that ardor which 
made him fight like a young knight, and rush into perils 
with less precaution than became a sovereign. 

The example of the Grand-master, who was so very 
careless of his own life, made the Knights, left in the 
principal posts of the place, expose daily their own, 
sometimes in defending the breaches and intrenchments, 
and often in engagements under ground, when they were 
to countermine and meet with the enemy's miners. There 
scarce passed a day, without an engagement, in some place 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 209 

or other. Besides the bastion of Spain, which was al- 
most entirely ruined, the Turks directed their principal 
attacks against the posts of England, Provence, and Ita- 
ly. The prodigious number of troops, of which their 
army consisted, easily supplied them with men for all 
these attacks. The walls were quite demolished, in sev- 
eral places, and the breaches were so large, that the Turks 
could mount, in formed battalions, to the assault of the 
bastion of England. The Knights, who had undertaken 
the defence of it, lined the ramparts, sword in hand, and 
with their bodies made a new parapet, for its defence. 
They were seconded by the artillery of the city, which 
played from several places, upon the foot of the breach. 
The Turks, without being daunted at the number of their 
slain, rush on, with fury, to attack the Knights, come up 
with them, grapple with them, and, by their multitudes 
as much as by their courage, force them to give back. 
These noble defendants saw themselves on the point of 
being overwhelmed by the crowd of their enemies, when 
the Chevalier de Morgut, Grand Prior of Navarre, and 
one of the adjutant-captains, as they were then called, 
ran, with his company, to their succor, restored the bat- 
tle, forced the Infidels, in their turn, to retire, and, with 
new efforts, obliged them, at last, after the loss of above 
six hundred men, to sound a retreat, and give over the 
attack. 

But, if the Order had such brave defendants in the 
persons of her Knights, she likewise nourished in her bo- 
som, and even among her principal chiefs, a traitor, who 
omitted nothing to forward the loss of Rhodes, and the 
ruin of the whole Order. The reader may easily per- 
ceive, that I mean the Chancellor d'Amaral. The 
Commander de Bourbon, in his account of the Siege of 
Rhodes, relates this tragical event as follows. 

D'Amaral, says this author, ever tormented with rage, 
and without being moved, at seeing the blood of his breth- 
ren shed, every day, still kept on his criminal intelligence 
with the Turks. One of his valets de chambre, Blaise 
Diez by name, in whom he entirely confided, used to 
come with a bow in his hand, at unseasonable hours, to 
18* 



210 GREAT EVENTS. 

the post of Auvergne, whence, whenever he fancied him- 
self not to be perceived, he shot an arrow, with a letter 
fixed to it, into the enemy's camp. His frequent resort 
to the same place, especially in a besieged city, immedi- 
ately gave some suspicion ; but, as they had not seen him 
shoot any of his letters, and besides, that he belonged to 
a person of great authority, such as had observed his 
stolen visits thither durst not mention it, at first, for fear 
of drawing upon themselves the resentment of a powerful 
and revengeful man. There was only one Knight, who, 
stifling ail considerations, and seeing the servant return 
often to the same place, gave private notice thereof to 
the Grand-master, who immediately gave orders for the 
seizing of this servant.* He was afterwards examined 
by the judges of the castellany, who, not being satisfied 
with his equivocal answers to their interrogatories, order- 
ed him to be put to the torture. He owned, upon the 
very first twitches of it, that he had, by his master's com- 
mand, thrown down several letters into the Turkish camp, 
to point out to them the weakest places of the city. He 
added, that he had likewise acquainted them, that the Or- 
der had lost the greatest part of its Knights, in the last as- 
saults ; and besides, that the city was in want of wine, 
powder, ammunition, and provisions ; but that, though 
the Grand-master was reduced to extremity, the Grand 
Signior ought not yet to flatter himself with the thought 
of being master of the place, any other way than by force 
of arms. 

This deposition was laid before the council, who gave 
orders for seizing the Chancellor, whom they carried to 
the tower of St. Nicholas. Two commanders, grand- 
crosses, repaired thither, with the magistrates of the city, 
to examine and try him : they read to him the deposition 
of his servant, who was afterwards confronted with him, 
and maintained, to his face, that it was by his orders, 
only, that he had frequently gone to the bastion of Au- 
vergne, and had thrown letters thence into the camp of 
the Infidels. This deposition was confirmed by that of 

* October 30. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 211 

a Greek priest, chaplain to the Order, who declared be- 
fore the judges, that, passing one day by the faussebraye 
of the bastion of Auvergne, in order to observe the ene- 
my's works, he found the Chancellor in a by-corner, with 
this very servant, who had a crossbow, with a quarrel, or 
square arrow, in his hand, to which he perceived there 
was a paper tied ; that the Chancellor, who was then 
looking through a loophole for the cannon, returning back, 
seemed surprised to see him, so near him, and demanded 
of him, roughly, and in an angry manner, what he want- 
ed : and that, finding his presence in that place was disa- 
greeable to him, he had made off, as fast as possible. 

Diez agreed to the Greek priest's deposition, in all its 
circumstances. This servant, who might perhaps flatter 
himself with the hopes of escaping punishment, by accus- 
ing his master, added further, that the Chancellor was the 
person that had persuaded the Grand Signior to invade 
the island, by the advices he sent him of the condition of 
the place, and despatching the slave before-mentioned to 
Constantinople, the whole negotiation passing through his 
hands. They put the Chancellor, at the same time, in 
mind, that, on the day of the Grand-master's election, he 
could not help saying, that he would be the last Grand- 
master of Rhodes. D'Amaral, no ways confused, being 
confronted, a second time, wftli his servant and the Greek 
priest, affirmed, that Diez was a villain and an impostor, 
whose deposition, he said, was nothing else but the effect 
of the resentment he had entertained, on account of pun- 
ishments that his ill conduct had occasioned him. He 
flatly denied all the facts, advanced by the Greek priest, 
with an intrepidity that ought only to attend on innocence. 
They were forced, in fine, to have recourse to the rack ; 
but, before they put him to it, the judges, who were his 
brother Knights, in order to save him from the torture of 
it, as also to get from him an account of his accomplices, 
conjured him, in the most pressing terms, to encourage 
them to save his life by an ingenuous confession of his 
faults. But the Chancellor rejected their offices, with 
indignation, and demanded of them, haughtily, if they 
thought him base enough, after having served the Order 



312 GREAT EVENTS. 

for above forty years, to dishonor himself, at the end of 
his life, by the confession of a crime that he was incapa- 
ble of committing. He bore the torture, with the same 
intrepidity ; and owned only, that, at the time of the 
Grand-master's election, at a time when the Turks were 
threatening Rhodes with a siege, having no great opinion, 
as he said, of the courage and abilities of I'Isle-Adam, he 
had dropped a word or two, and said, that he would per- 
haps be the last Grand-master of Rhodes ; when, turning 
towards his judges, he asked them, if a word, that emu- 
lation and a rivalship for the same dignity had extorted 
from him, deserved to have the great Chancellor of the 
Order put into the hands of executioners. But the judg- 
es, being persuaded of his criminal correspondence with 
the Turks, were not dazzled by his protestations. No- 
body took his recriminations against Diez for proofs of 
his innocence : the master and servant were both con- 
demned to death. The Chancellor was sentenced to be 
beheaded, and Diez to be hanged. Their bodies were 
afterwards quartered, and exposed to the view of the 
Turks, upon the principal bastions of the place. The 
valet was executed first. He was born a Jew, but had 
been converted, and declared, at his execution, that he 
died a good Christian. Before d'Amaral was put to 
death, an assembly was held in the great church of St. 
John, in which the Bailiff de Manosque presided. The 
criminal was brought thither ; they read to him his sen- 
tence, which ordered him to be degraded, and stripped 
of the habit of the Order ; which was done, with all the 
ceremonies prescribed by the statutes. They delivered 
him over, afterwards, to the secular arm, who carried him 
to prison, and, the next day, he was carried in a chair to 
the public place, where he was to be executed. He 
looked upon all the preparatives to his execution, and 
the approaches of death, with a resolution worthy of a 
better cause ; but his refusing, in that extremity, to rec- 
ommend himself to the protection of the Blessed Virgin, 
whose image, the priest, that assisted him, presented to 
him, gave them no advantageous opinion of his piety. 
Fontanus, a contemporary historian, and an eyewitness 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 213 

of what passed, speaking of the very different deaths of 
two grand-crosses, who were appointed, in the beginning 
of the siege, in joint commission with d'Amaral, to visit 
and take care of the ammunition and provisions, and who 
were both killed in assaults, adds, with regard to the Chan- 
cellor, of whom he speaks, but does not name, " God had 
reserved the last of the three for a shameful death, which 
he richly deserved." However, the services he had done 
the Order, for so many years, his intrepidity under the 
most exquisite torments of the rack, the ancient and val- 
uable fidelity of the Portuguese gentry to their sovereigns, 
of which there are so many illustrious examples in histo- 
ry, — all this, might serve to balance the deposition of a 
servant. And perhaps the Chancellor would not have 
been treated so very rigorously, if, when the public safe- 
ty is at stake, bare suspicion were not, as we may say, a 
crime that state policy seldom pardons. 

But be that as it will. To resume the relation of this 
famous siege : SoHman, tired out with its continuance, 
and the little success of his miners, ordered Achmet to 
begin his batteries again, and dispose his soldiers for a 
general assault. The eyes of all the universe were then 
fixed upon Rhodes. The Turks flattered themselves, 
with hopes of carrying it, by storm ; and the Knights, 
who were reduced to a small number, and were rather 
hid and buried, than fortified, in the little ground that was 
left them, waited, with impatience, for the succors which 
the Christian princes had so long fed them with the vain 
hopes of sending them, in order to raise the siege. But 
the Emperor Charles the Fifth, and Francis the First, 
king of France, were so obstinately animated against one 
another, that they durst not send away their troops, or 
divide them ; and the other European princes, most of 
which were engaged on the side of one of those two prin- 
ces, and were afraid lest their own territories should be 
invaded, kept their forces about them, for fear of a sur- 
prise. The Pope himself, Adrian the Sixth, by name, 
a pious, and indeed learned, pontiff, but of no great ca- 
pacity, and entirely devoted to the Emperor, being presS' 
ed by Cardinal Julian de Medecis, an old Knight of the 



214 GREAT EVENTS. 

Order, to send his galleys to Rhodes, with a body of in- 
fantry which then lay about Rome, the new Pontiff excus- 
ed himself from so doing, under pretence, that, as he was 
not skilled in the arts of government, he could not send 
away his troops, while all Italy was in arras : though it is 
very probable, that he durst not dispose of them, without 
the privity and consent of the Emperor, his benefactor ; 
and that, out of complaisance to that Prince, instead of 
sending them to Rhodes, he ordered them to march into 
the Milanese territory and Lombardy, where they were 
employed against the French. 

Thus were the Grand-master and his Knights, after 
putting their whole confidence in God, left without any 
hopes of succor, but what they could draw from the Or- 
der itself. They were, besides, so unfortunate, as not to 
receive a considerable convoy, which the French Knights 
sent, in two ships, from the port of Marseilles. One of 
these ships, after a storm of several days, was cast away, 
and lost off Monaco ; and the other, losing her masts in 
the same storm, was stranded on the coast of Sardinia, 
and disabled from putting to sea. Nor were the English 
less unfortunate. Sir Thomas de Newport, embarking 
with several Knights of that nation, and a good quantity 
of provisions, as well as money, on board, was caught in 
the same storm, which drove him upon a desert country, 
where he was stranded. The Chevalier Aulamo, of the 
Language of Aragon, and Prior of St. Martin, was in 
hopes of getting into the port of Rhodes. But he was 
met, in the Archipelago, by some Turkish galleys, and, 
after a long engagement, got out of their hands with great 
difficulty. 

The Grand-master, though abandoned, as we may say, 
by all human succor, did not yet abandon himself, nor 
despond. This great man discovered, in so sad an ex- 
tremity, the same courage which had carried him so often 
upon the breach, and into the midst of his enemies. By 
his orders, the Knights that resided in the adjoining isles 
that depended on Rhodes, and in the castle of St. Peter, 
quitted them, in order to preserve the capital of the Or- 
der, and transported thither, on board some light barks 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 216 

and little brigantines, all the soldiers, arms, and provis- 
ions, they were masters of. The Grand-master, in the 
extremity to which he was reduced, took this step, in 
hopes of one day recovering those islands, if he could 
but maintain his ground in Rhodes. But, as they had 
drawn the hke succors from these several places, before, 
this last, the only hopes the Knights had left, betrayed 
their weakness more than it augmented their forces. 
The Grand-master despatched, at the same time, the 
Chevalier Farfan, of the Language of England, into Can- 
dia, to endeavor to get provisions there ; and sent an- 
other Knight, called Des Reaux, to Naples, to hasten the 
succors, which were retarded by the rigor of the season. 
But all his endeavors were fruitless ; and one would have 
thought, that the winds and the sea had conspired, for the 
loss of the isle of Rhodes, and of this armament, — the 
last supply of which the besieged had any hopes. 

The Turks, to whom some deserters had represented 
these succors as much stronger and nearer at hand than 
they were, in reality, used their endeavors to prevent 
them. Achmet, who, under Soliman's orders, had the 
whole direction of the siege, planted a battery of seven- 
teen cannon against the bastion of Italy, and completed 
the ruin of all the fortifications. He afterwards ran his 
trenches to the foot of the wall ; and, to secure his men 
from being galled by the artillery of the place, he cover- 
ed these new works with thick planks and great beams 
of timber. His pioneers afterwards pierced through the 
wall, and ran their mines as far as the intrenchments ; 
and then, digging away the earth that supported them, 
they made them sink, so that the Knights were forced to 
retire further within the town : and the Grand-master, 
who never stirred from the attacks, seeing the Infidels 
masters of the best part of the platform of the bastion, 
was forced to demolish the church of St. Pantaleon, and 
the chapel of Notre Dame de la Victoire,* to hinder the 
Turks from making lodgements there ; and he employ- 
ed the materials of those two churches, in making new 

*Our Lady of the Victory. 



216 GREAT EVENTS. 

barricadoes and intrenchments, to hinder the enemy kom 
penetrating further into the place. 

The Turkish General had the same success, at the 
bastion of England. After his artillery had played upon 
it, for several days, and had demolished the walls and 
ruined the fortifications, several Knights proposed to 
abandon it, first filhng the mines, that were under it, with 
powder, in order to blow up the Infidels, who should 
throw themselves into it. But it was remonstrated, in 
the council of war, held on this subject, that, in the ex- 
tremity to which they were reduced, the saving of the 
place depended entirely on prolonging the siege, so as to 
allow time for the succors, they expected, to arrive ; 
and that therefore there was not a foot of ground, but 
what was to be disputed with the enemy, as long as pos- 
sible. This last opinion prevailed ; and, though the bas- 
tion was entirely ruined, by mines and the fire of the 
artillery, nevertheless, the Chevalier Binde Malicome 
offered himself, generously, to defend it ; and, in spite 
of the continual attacks of the Turks, he maintained it, 
with great glory, to the very end of the siege. 

The Turks did not allow any more rest to the Knights 
who defended the posts of Italy and Spain. They at- 
tacked the first, on the twenty-second of November. 
They had seized, as has been already observed, on the 
best part of the platform of Italy ; the Knights had 
scarcely a third of it left ; and both of them were buried, 
as it were, in subterraneous works, and divided only by 
planks and beams from one another. The Turks, seeing 
themselves in possession of the greater part of this plat- 
form, undertook to drive the Knights entirely out of it. A 
battalion of the Infidels, on the side next the sea, mounted 
to the assauh, while another body attacked their intrench- 
ments, sword in hand. But they met w^ith the same 
valor and resistance, in all places ; and, though the Knights 
had lost abundance of men, in these bloody attacks, 
they yet repulsed the Infidels, and obliged them to retire. 

It was, however, only to return, a few days afterwards, 
in much greater numbers. The attack was preceded by 
a mine, which they sprung under the bastion of Spain. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 217 

It made a great panel of the wall fall down ; and, in 
order to hinder the Knights from making new intrench- 
ments, behind this breach, a battery of their largest can- 
non played, for a whole night and day, without intermis- 
sion, upon this place. The Turks, upon the thirtieth 
of November, returned, at daybreak, to the assault, 
whilst Peri Basha, at the same time, attacked the Italian 
platform, again. But the main effort of the Infidels was 
made against the bastion of Spain. The Turks, in great 
numbers, and sustained by the bravest troops of their 
army, advanced boldly up to the breach, notwithstanding 
all the fire of the artillery and small shot of the besieged. 
Their great numbers prevailed over all the courage of 
the Rhodians, and they penetrated as far as the intrench- 
ments, which the Bailiff Martinengo had made, before 
he was wounded : but, at the sound of the bells, which 
proclaimed the danger that the city was in, the Grand- 
master, the Prior of St. Giles, and the Bailiff Martinen- 
go, who was not yet quite cured of his wound, ran, from 
different places, with the greatest part of the Knights and 
inhabitants ; none of them observing any order, but what 
his courage, and perhaps his despair, dictated ; and all of 
them, regardless how they exposed their lives, rushed 
with a kind of fury upon the Turks. The Infidels did 
not show less courage ; they grappled with one another 
with equal advantage, and without being able to discover 
what the success p( this terrible engagement would be. 
Happily for Rhodes, there fell a prodigious rain ; floods 
of water fell from the skies, and washed away the earth 
that served as a shoulder-work to the trenches of the In- 
fidels. This laying them open to the artillery of the post 
of Auvergne, it played furiously, and killed a great num- 
ber of them ; and the other batteries, which they had 
placed upon the mills of Cosquin, and the musketeers of 
the Knights, firing continually upon the breach, and in the 
midst of the enemy that was lodged there, made so hor- 
rible a slaughter of them, that such as could escape the 
fury of the cannon ran, as fast as possible, to their 
camp and trenches, notwithstanding all the menaces of 
their officers. 

19 a. E. 



218 GREAT EVENTS. 

The Turks were not more successful, in their attack 
of the platform of Italy. Peri Basha, who commanded 
at it, after losing his bravest men, and hearing of the ill 
success of the attack on the Spanish bastion, seeing, 
hkewise, his troops almost drowned with rain, ordered 
the retreat to be sounded. Such was the success of a 
day, which would have been the last for the hberty of 
Rhodes, had not the Grand-master and his Knights pre- 
served it, by neglecting their own preservation, and 
bravely exposing their lives, without the least reserve. 

Soliman could not see his troops coming back, in dis- 
order, and in a downright flight, without falling into a 
passion. He had been almost six months, with two 
hundred thousand men, before the place, without being 
able to take it. The vexation he felt, and his apprehen- 
sions that the Christian iprinces might at last unite their 
forces, in order to oblige him to raise the siege, made 
him shut himself up, some days, in his tent, without suf- 
fering any of his captains to come near him. No one durst 
offer to come into his presence ; no one but Peri Basha, 
his old governor, who had a particular privilege to enter, 
durst venture to speak to him. That subtle minister, in 
order to bring him to a better temper, represented to 
him, that the troops were lodged upon the principal bas- 
tions ; that he was in possession of part of the place ; that 
another assault would carry it ; that they had, indeed, to 
deal with a set of despeTate men, who would suffer them- 
selves to be all killed, to a man, rather than surrender ; 
but that the Knights were reduced to a small number ; 
that the inhabitants, who were most of them Greeks, had 
not the same courage, nor indeed the same interest, to 
be obstinate in the defence of the place ; and that he was 
persuaded they would not reject a composition, which 
offered them security for their lives and fortunes. The 
Sultan approved this advice, and ordered him to put it in 
execution. 

Peri ordered several letters, in the Grand Signior's 
name, to be thrown into the place, exhorting the inhabi- 
tants to submit to his empire, and threatening them, at the 
same time, with the most cruel treatment, themselves. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 219 

their wives, and their children, if they should be taken 
by storm. The Basha afterwards employed a Genoese, 
that happened to be in Soliman's camp, who, advancing 
near the bastion of Auvergne, desired leave to speak. 
This Genoese, whose name was Hieronymo Monilio, 
affecting a feigned compassion, said, that as he was a 
Christian, he could not bear to see the approaching loss 
and massacre of so many Christians, his brethren, who 
would be overwhelmed with the formidable power of 
Soliman ; that their fortifications were destroyed, their 
intrenchments ruined, and the enemy already lodged with- 
in the place ; tliat they ought, in prudence, to prevent 
the dismal consequences of a town's being carried hy 
storm ; and that it would not, perhaps, be impossible to 
obtain a sure and even an honorable composition from 
Soliman. The commander of the bastion, by the Grand- 
master's order, answered him, that the Knights of St. 
John never treated with the Infidels, but with sword in 
hand ; and, lest his artful discourse should make any im- 
pression upon the minds of the inhabitants, he ordered 
him to retire. This cunning agent of the Basha, far 
from being discouraged, returned, two days afterwards, 
to the same place, under pretence of having letters to de- 
liver to a Genoese, that was in the place. But the com- 
mandant ordering him to retire, he declared, that he 
brought a packet from Soliman to the Grand-master. 
This was a new pretext for entering into a negotiation ; 
but the Grand-master eluded it, by refusing to receive it, 
from the apprehensions he was under, that the bare ap- 
pearances of a treaty would enervate the courage of the 
soldiers and inhabitants ; and, in order to oblige this ne- 
gotiator to go off, they fired some musket-shot at him. 
An Albanian deserter from the city, who had afterwards 
entered into Soliman's service, was the next to act his 
part ; and, after the usual signals, desired admittance into 
the place, in order to present the Grand-master with a 
letter, which he was to deliver to him from the Sultan ; 
but he was not better received than the Genoese. The 
Grand-master, through fear of discouraging his troops, 
refused to give him audience, and declared to him, that 



220 GREAT EVENTS 

they would, for the future, without any regard to signals 
of parley, or the character of envoys, fire upon all that 
should offer to come near the place. 

Nevertheless, the frequent arrival of these agents, and 
the Grand Signior's letters, which the Basha had taken 
care to throw into the city, did not fail to produce the 
desired effect. The greater part of the inhabitants, being 
of the Greek religion, began to hold private meetings be- 
tween themselves ; the most mutinous, or rather the 
most timorous and cowardly, represented, that most of 
them had lost their relations and friends, in the many 
assaults that had been given ; that they, themselves, 
were on the brink of ruin ; that the enemy was intrench- 
ed within the place, and that, at the very first attack, 
they should see themselves overwhelmed with the for- 
midable multitude of the Infidels ; that they had, for a 
long time, been resolved to sacrifice their own lives, but 
could not see the dishonor and slavery of their wives and 
children, without the most piercing affliction ; that they 
might prevent such a terrible calamity, by surrendering 
upon good terms ; and, after all, that, whatever the 
Knights might allege, the example of so many Christian 
states, that lived peaceably under the dominion of the 
Turks, was a plain proof, that they might do the same, 
and that they, by paying a small tribute, might also save 
both their religion and their fortunes. 

Such discourses as these, repeated at different meet- 
ings, determined the most considerable of the inhabitants 
to apply to their Metropolitan. They begged him to 
take pity on his people, and to represent to the Grand- 
master, that, if he did not immediately treat with the 
Grand Signior, they must necessarily be the first victims 
of the fury of the victorious soldiers, and that he himself 
would see the churches profaned, the precious relics of 
the saints trampled under foot, and the women and vir- 
gins exposed to the brutality of the Infidels. The Prelate 
entered into these just considerations, and laid the remon- 
strances and request of his people before the Grand-mas- 
ter, who at first rejected the propositions of the Metro- 
politan with a noble disdain, and declared to him, that 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 221 

himself and his Knights had, when they shut up them- 
selves in Rhodes, resolved to be buried upon the breach, 
and in the last intrenchments of the place, and that he 
hoped the inhabitants would follow their example, and 
show the same courage. 

But the Metropohtan found them in a very different 
disposition. Fear, on the one side, and a desire of 
peace, on the other, had obtained an ascendancy over 
them. New deputies were sent back, the day following, 
and applied directly to the Grand-master. They de- 
clared to him, that, unless he took some care to pre- 
serve the inhabitants, they themselves could not help 
taking the most proper measures to secure the lives and 
honor of their wives and children. 

The Grand-master, justly fearing that despair might 
occasion a fatal division, that would hasten the loss of 
the place, referred them to the council. Whilst they 
were dehberating a])out this important matter, three mer- 
chants knocked at the door of the council-house. They 
were let in, and presented a petition, signed by the prin- 
cipal inhabitants, in which they besought the Order to 
make some provision for the safety of their wives and 
children ; insinuating, at the end of the petition, that, if 
they should have no regard thereto, they should think 
themselves obliged, by all laws, both Divine and human, 
not to abandon them to the fury and brutality of the Infi- 
dels. The Grand-master, before any answer was given 
them, ordered the Knights, who commanded at the sev- 
eral posts, to be called in, in order to learn, from them, a 
true and exact account of the state and forces of the 
place. He addressed himself particularly to the Grand 
Prior of St. Giles and the Bailiff Martinengo, who had, 
a few days before, taken arms again, and resumed the 
defence of the place. These two great men, who had 
so many times exposed their lives on the most dangerous 
occasions, declared, one after the other, that they thought 
themselves obliged, both in conscience and honor, to 
represent to the assembly, that the place was not any 
longer tenable ; that the Turks had advanced their works 
above forty paces forwards, and above thirty crosswise, 
19* 



222 GREAT EVENTS. 

into the city ; that they were fortified there, in such a 
manner, that they could no longer feed themselves with 
the hopes of driving them out, or that they themselves 
could retire further back, in order to make new intrench- 
ments ; that all the pioneers, and the best of the soldiers, 
were killed ; that they themselves could not be ignorant 
how many Knights the Order had lost ; that the town was 
equally in want of ammunition and provisions ; and that, 
without a speedy and powerful succor, they could see no 
resource, and had even reason to fear, that, at the first 
attack, the Christians would be borne down by the formi- 
dable power and vast numbers of the Infidels. 

All the council, upon the report of two captains, so 
brave in their persons and so greatly skilled in the arts 
of war, were of opinion, that they should enter into a 
treaty with Soliman. The Grand-master was the only 
person that differed from them, in that respect, who, 
without abating any thing of his usual constancy and mag- 
nanimity, represented to them, that, in the whole course 
of so many ages, as the Order had been making war upon 
the Infidels, the Knights had, in the most perilous occa- 
sions, always preferred a holy and glorious death, before 
a frail and precarious life ; that he was ready to set them 
an example, and begged of them, before they took so 
grievous a step, to reflect once more upon it, in the most 
serious manner. 

The principal persons of the council replied, that, if 
their own particular lives were concerned in the case, 
they would all follow his example, and freely die, by his 
side ; that they were ready to sacrifice their lives ; that 
they had devoted them to God, when they took the hab- 
it ; but that the safety of the inhabitants was the business 
in question ; that, if the Infidels should carry the place, 
by storm, and enter it, sword in hand, they would force 
the women and children, and all weak persons, to re- 
nounce the faith ; that they would make the most of the 
mhabitants either slaves or renegadoes ; and that the 
churches, and particularly the relics, which had so long 
been the object of their veneration, at Rhodes, would be 
profaned by the Infidels, and made the subject of their 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 223 

contempt and raillery. The Grand-master yielded, at 
length, to these pious considerations, and they resolved, 
at the first overtures of peace that the Sultan should 
make, to give an answer, and enter upon a negotiation. 

The Grand Signior, uneasy at the thoughts of succors, 
a report of which the Knights had taken care to spread 
abroad, and unable either to take the place, or, on the 
other hand, to raise the siege consistent with his honor, 
endeavored, by new propositions, to shake the resolution 
and constancy of the Knights : they planted, by his or- 
ders, a flag on the top of the church of St. Mary, and in 
a quarter called the Lymonitres. 

The Grand-master thereupon ordered another to be 
fixed upon a mill that was at the gate of Cosquin. Upon 
this signal, two Turks, who, by their dress, seemed to be 
considerable officers, came out of the trenches, and ad- 
vanced towards the gate ; they were met there by the 
Prior of St. Giles and the Bailiff Martinengo, to whom 
they delivered only a letter from Soliman to the Grand- 
master, without speaking a word. The letter contained 
a summons to surrender the place, with advantageous of- 
fers, provided they should deliver it up, immediately, and 
threats of putting all to the sword, if they delayed it any 
longer. The common council of the Order and the 
great council were for hearing the conditions which the 
Sultan offered : they agreed to give hostages, on both 
sides. The Order sent, as deputies to Soliman, Sir 
Anthony Grolee, called Passim, and Robert Perrucey, 
Judge of Rhodes, who both spoke the vulgar Greek, with 
facility. The Turks, on their side, sent into Rhodes, a 
nephew of the General Achmet, and also one of Soli- 
man's interpreters, in whom that Prince put entire confi- 
dence. The Chevalier de Grolee and his brother dep- 
uty were admitted to an audience of the Grand Sig- 
nior, who told them, that he was disposed to let them go 
quietly out of the island and the East, provided they 
would immediately surrender up to him, Rhodes, Fort 
St. Peter, Lango, and the other little islands of the Or- 
der ; but that if, from a resolution of making a rash de- 
fence, they should be obstinate in attempting to hold out 



224 GREAT EVENTS. 

any longer, against his formidable power, he would de- 
stroy all before him, with fire and sword. The two dep- 
uties desired to return into the place, to communicate his 
intentions to the Grand-master and the council ; but the 
Turks sent back Perrucey, only, with orders to bring a 
decisive answer, immediately ; and General Achmet kept 
the Chevaher de Grolee in his tent, whom he treated 
very honorably, and owned to him, at table, in the heal 
of the entertainment, that the Sultan, his master, had lost, 
at that siege, forty-four thousand men, who had fallen by 
the arms of the Knights, besides almost as considerable a 
number, that had died of sickness and cold, since the be- 
ginning of the Winter. 

During these preliminaries of the negotiation, a com- 
pany of young fellows, who were some of the most in- 
considerable of the townsmen, and who had not been 
consulted in the petition, which the principal inhabitants 
had presented to the Grand-master, ran in a tumultuous 
manner to the palace, to complain that they were treating 
with the enemy without their consent, and that would be 
delivering them up to a perfidious nation, that gloried in 
breaking their faith with Christians, and that they all 
chose to die, with their weapons in their hands, rather 
than be cut to pieces, after the capitulation, as the inhab- 
itants of Belgrade had been. The Grand-master, who 
was used to the bravadoes and vanity of the Greeks, an- 
swered them, with great moderation, that prudence did 
not allow him to publish the motives of the negotiation, 
for fear the Grand Siguier should be informed of the ill 
condition of the place, and break it, and his troops make 
another assault, which he was afraid they wanted forces 
sufficient to sustain ; but that he was exceedingly pleased 
to find them so well disposed to defend their country ; 
that they should see him always at their head, and ready 
to shed the last drop of his blood for the preservation of 
the place : he desired them, only, to remember to bring 
thither, on the first occasion that might offer itself, the 
same courage, and all the resolution of which they boast- 
ed in their discourse, and in the presence of their Sov- 
ereign. 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 225 

As no great account was made of the idle talk of a 
troop of braggadocios, the Grand-master and the council 
being informed by one of their deputies of the Sultan'^ 
disposition, thought fit to despatch two other ambassadors 
to him, and chose for that employment Don Raimond 
Marquet and Don Lopez Cepas, both Spaniards, who, 
in the audience they had of the Grand Signior, demand- 
ed of him a truce, for three days, in order to regulate the 
capitulation, and adjust the several interests of the inhabi- 
tants, who were partly Latins and partly Greeks. 

But that Prince, being always uneasy at the reports 
spread in his army, of an approaching succor, rejected 
the proposition of a truce ; and, in order to determine the 
Grand-master to treat immediately, he commanded his 
officers to begin firing again, and prepare every thing for 
a general assault. He sent back, at the same time, one 
of the new envoys, but kept the other, with a design, no 
doubt, of resuming the negotiation, if he did not succeed 
immediately in the attack. 

The batteries began to fire, on both sides, but not so 
furiously on the part of the Knights, who reserved the 
little powder left them for the assaults they were unavoid- 
ably to stand. The Grand-master, seeing the attack 
begin again, sent for the inhabitants, who had spoken to 
him with so much ostentation of their courage ; and told 
them, that now was the time of their giving him proofs of 
it ; and an order was issued out in his name, and publish- 
ed with sound of trumpet, to all the citizens to repair im- 
mediately to the advanced posts, with a strict injunction 
not to quit them, either day or night, under pain of death. 
The townsmen obeyed this order, for some days ; but a 
certain young man, terrified at the danger to which he 
was exposed, from the enemy's artillery, stealing home 
in the night, the Grand-master sent to take him, and the 
council of war condemned him to be hanged, as an ex- 
ample to the rest, and in order to keep up discipline. 

Though all the fortifications of Rhodes were ruined, 
and the city was, in a manner, no more than a heap of 
stones and rubbish, yet the Knights still kept their ground, 
in the barbacan, or faussebraye, of the bastion of Spain, 



226 GREAT EVENTS. 

where the Grand-master himself lodged, in order to take 
the better care of its defence. The Turks attacked it on 
the seventeenth of December. 

The engagement was very bloody and obstinate. They 
fought, almost the whole day, on both sides, with equal 
animosity. The Grand-master, and the few Knights he 
had left, ran, as we may say, to meet their wounds ; 
and, rather than survive the loss of the place, went in 
quest of death, that seemed to fly from them. In fine, 
tliey exerted themselves so nobly, that, after making a 
terrible slaughter of the enemy, they forced them to re- 
tire. But the Infidels, animated by the reproaches of 
the Sultan, returned, the next day, to the assault, and 
came on, in such vast numbers, that the Knights, borne 
down by their multitude, were forced to abandon the 
work, and threw themselves into the city, to defend 
it, to the utmost extremity, and bury themselves in its 
ruins. 

The townsmen, terrified at the approaching danger, 
abandoned their posts, and retired, one after another. 
The Grand-master and his Knights were forced to make, 
alone, the ordinary guard of the place ; and, if those noble 
soldiers of Jesus Christ had not kept upon the breach, it 
would have been surprised, and carried by assault. In 
fine, all the inhabitants came, in a body, to beseech the 
Grand-master to resume the negotiation, and entreated 
him to give them leave to send, along with his ambassa- 
dors to the camp, two deputies of their own, to take care 
of their interests in the capitulation. The Grand-master 
consented to it ; and the body of the townsmen named 
Peter Singlifico and Nicholas Vergati, when the Cheva- 
lier de Grolee, who had renewed the negotiation with 
General Achmet, conducted them to the camp, and de- 
sired him to present them to the Grand Signior. But, 
before they were admitted to his audience, the Grand- 
master, in some hopes, though they were very uncertain, 
of a succor, and with design to spin out the negotiation, 
had directed him to show Achmet an old treaty which 
Sultan Bajazet had made with the Grand-master d'Au- 
busson ; in which, he lays his curse upon any of his sue- 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 227 

cessors, that should break the peace he had concluded 
with the Knights of St. John. The Grand-master gave 
this instrument to his ambassador, that he might feel if 
Soliman, who was a zealous observer of his law, could 
be prevailed with, in consideration of a considerable sum 
of money, to raise the siege. But Achmet, as soon as 
he cast his eyes on the paper, tore it to pieces, trod it 
under his feet, and drove the ambassador and deputies 
of the people from his presence. In fine, having no 
succor to hope for, nor forces enough to defend the city, 
the Grand-master sent the ambassador and deputies to the 
camp, who, after making their compliments to the Grand 
Signior, set themselves with Achmet to draw up the ca- 
pitulation, the principal articles whereof contained, that 
the churches should not be profaned, nor the inhabitants 
obliged to deliver up their children to be made Janiza- 
ries ; that they should be allowed the free exercise of 
the Christian religion ; that the people should be exempt 
from taxes for five years ; that all who would go out of 
the island should have leave to do so ; that if the Grand- 
master and the Knights should not have vessels enough to 
transport them to Candia, they should be furnished with 
them, by the Turks ; that they should be allowed twelve 
days' time, reckoning from that of signing the treaty, to 
put their effects on board ; that they might carry away 
the relics of the saints, the consecrated vessels of the 
church of St. John, the ornaments, their movables, their 
records and writings, and all the cannon that they used 
to employ on board their galleys ; that all the forts of the 
isle of Rhodes, and the other isles belonging to the Order, 
and that of the castle of St. Peter, should be delivered 
up to the Turks ; that, in order to facilitate the execu- 
tion of this treaty, the Turkish army should remove to 
some miles distance ; that, whilst it lay at that distance, 
the Sultan should send four thousand Janizaries, under 
the command of their Aga, to take possession of the 
place ; and that the Grand-master, as a security of his 
word, should give twenty-five Knights in hostage, among 
which were to be two grand-crosses, with twenty-five of 
the principal burgesses of the town. This treaty being 



228 GREAT EVENTS. 

signed by the ambassador and deputies, on one side, and 
by General Achmet, in the Suhan's name, and ratified 
by the Grand-master, and the lords of the council, the 
hostages agreed on repaired to the camp, and the Aga 
of the Janizaries entered at the same time into the town, 
with a company of his soldiers, and took possession of it. 

Whilst they were employed, on both sides, in execu- 
ting the treaty, they saw a numerous fleet, off at sea, 
standing in for the island, under full sail, and with a 
favorable wind. The Turks, who were always uneasy, 
on account of the succors that the Christians had so long 
expected, made no question but they were ships of the 
princes of the West, coming to raise the siege. They 
immediately ran to arms. S oilman and his generals were 
in great pain ; but the fleet drawing near the coast, they 
discovered the crescent in their flags ; and, after the 
troops on board the fleet were landed, they found that 
they came from the frontiers of Persia, whither Soli- 
man, seeing his soldiers disheartened, by so many unsuc- 
cessful attacks, had, in hopes that fresh troops might be- 
have themselves with more ardor in the assaults, sent 
orders to Ferhat Basha, to bring them with the utmost 
diligence he could. It is to be presumed, that, if these 
fresh troops had landed sooner, the Knights would not 
have made so honorable a composition with the Sultan ; 
but, as they had begun to execute the capitulation. Soli- 
man would not make any advantage of this succor, nor 
fail in the performance of his word. 

Two days after the treaty was signed. General Ach- 
met had a conference with the Grand-master, in the ditch 
of the post of Spain ; and, after several discourses had 
passed between them, in relation to the attack and de- 
fence of Rhodes, he told him, that the Grand Signior 
was desirous to see him, and insinuated to him, that he 
ought not to think of going away, without taking leave of 
his conqueror, lest he should provoke his anger. The 
Grand-master, being apprehensive that he would be in- 
censed at the long resistance made to all his power, as 
well as on account of the prodigious number of soldiers 
which he had lost at the siege, was not very willing to 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 229 

deliver himself up into his hands ; but as, on the other 
side, he was afraid of furnishing him, by a refusal, with a 
pretence, which perhaps he wished to find, of not keep- 
ing his word, this great man, who had, during the siege, 
exposed himself to the greatest dangers, got over all con- 
siderations, and resolved to sacrifice himself once more, 
for the safety of his brethren. He came early the next 
morning into the quarters to the entrance of the Sultan's 
tent. The Turks, out of pride and a barbarous kind of 
grandeur, suffered him to wait there, almost all the whole 
day, without offering him any thing to eat or drink, ex- 
posed to a severe cold, and to snow and hail, which fell 
in abundance. When the evening was drawing on, he 
was called in ; and, clothing him and the Knights that at- 
tended him with magnificent vests, they introduced him 
to an audience of the Sultan. That Prince was struck 
with the majesty that appeared in all the air and over the 
whole person of the Grand-master, and told him, by his 
interpreter, by way of consolation, " That the conquesi 
and loss of empires were the ordinary sports of fortune.'' 
He added, in order to engage so great a captain in his 
service, that he had just seen, by a woful experience, the 
little stress that was to be laid on the amity and alliance 
of the Christian princes, who had so scandalously aban- 
doned him ; and that, if he was willing to embrace his 
law, there was no post or dignity in the whole extent of 
his empire, but he was ready to gratify him with. The 
Grand-master, who was as zealous a Christian as he was 
a great captain, after thanking him for the good will he 
expressed towards him, repHed, that he should be very 
unworthy of his favors, if he were capable of accepting 
them ; that so great a prince as he would be dishonored 
by the services of a traitor and a renegado ; and that all he 
requested of Soliman was, that he would be pleased to 
order his officers not to give him any disturbance in his 
going off and embarcation. Soliman signified to him, 
that he might go on with it quietly ; that his word was 
inviolable ; and, as a token of friendship, though per- 
haps out of ostentation of his grandeur, he gave him his 
hand, to kiss. 

20 G. E. 



230 GREAT EVENTS. 

In breach, however, of the treaty, and the positive 
promises of the Grand Signior, five days after the capitu- 
lation was signed, some Janizaries, under pretence of vis- 
iting their comrades, who, with their Aga, had taken pos- 
session of the place, dispersed themselves over it, plun- 
dered the first houses they came to near the gate of 
Cosquin, broke into the churches, which they profaned, 
and ransacked the very tombs of the Grand-masters, 
where their avarice made them fancy they should find 
treasure. Thence they ran, like so many furies, to the 
Infirmary, that celebrated monument of the charity of the 
Knights, drove out the sick, and carried off the plate, in 
which they were served, and would have carried their 
violence still further, if, upon the Grand-master's com- 
plaints, general Achmet, who knew the Grand Siguier's 
intention, had not sent word to the Aga, that his head 
should answer for the plunder and extravagance of his 
soldiers. Indeed, the Grand Signior, who was fond 
of glory and jealous of his reputation, was desirous that 
the Knights, when they retired into the various states of 
Christendom, should, with the news of the conquest of 
Rhodes, carry likewise with them the reputation of his 
clemency, and his inviolable observance of his word ; 
and this, perhaps, might be the motive that engaged him, 
when he visited his new conquest, to enter into the Grand- 
master's palace. 

This Prince received him with all the marks of respect 
due to so potent a monarch. Soliman, in this visit, so 
very extraordinary in a Grand Signior, accosted him in 
an affable manner, exhorted him to bear, courageously, 
this change of fortune, and signified to him, by Achmet, 
who attended him, that he might take his own time to 
embark his effects, and that, if the time stipulated was 
not sufficient, he would readily prolong it. He retired, 
upon this, after repeating his assurances to the Grand- 
master of an inviolable fidelity, in the execution of the 
capitulation ; and, turning towards his General, as he went 
out of the palace, " I cannot help being concerned," 
says he to him, " that I force this Christian, at his age, 
to go out of his house." 



SIEGE AND SURRENDER OF RHODES. 231 

The Grasid-master was obliged to quit it, even before 
the term agreed on was expired ; for, being informed 
that the Sultan was preparing to set out, in two days, for 
Constantinople, he did not think it proper to stay in the 
island, exposed to the mercy of the officers that were to 
command there, who might, perhaps, in the Grand Sig- 
nior's absence, value themselves on giving such explica- 
tions to the treaty as suited their hatred and animosity 
against the Knights. So that, not thinking it safe to stay 
any longer, among barbarians that were not over scrupu- 
lous with regard to the law of nations, he ordered the 
Knights, and such as would follow the fortune of the 
Order, to carry, immediately, their most valuable effects 
on board the vessels of the Order. 

This dismal embarcation was made in the night, with 
a precipitation and disorder that can hardly be described. 
Nothing could be more moving, than to see the poor cit- 
izens, loaded with thejr goods, and followed by their 
Tamilies, abandoning their country. There was heard, 
on all sides, a confused noise of children, crying ; of 
women, bemoaning themselves ; of men, cursing their ill 
'brtune ; and of seamen, calling out after them all. The 
Grand-master, alone, wisely dissembled his grief ; the 
ientiments of his heart were not betrayed by his looks ; 
•ind, in this confusion, he gave his orders with the same 
tranquillity, as if he had been only to send away a squad- 
ron of the Order to cruise. 

The Grand-master, besides the Knights, put on board 
above four thousand inhabitants of the island, men, wo- 
men, and children, who, not caring to stay under the do- 
minion of the Infidels, resolved to follow the fortune of 
!.he Order, and abandon their country. 

Prince Amurath, son to the unfortunate Zlzim,* would 

* Zizim, (or, as is more correct, Djem,) son of the Sultan Moham- 
med the Second and brother to Bajazet, had warred against this Sul- 
tan, and, after repeated failures, had given himself into the power of 
the Hospitallers, after having made a regular treaty with them. Zizim, 
nevertheless, was carried to France, as a prisoner, and treated with the 
most cruel faithlessness. He was finally handed over to the Pope ; 
and, when the King of France insisted upon his being given up to 
him, to be treated as became the brother of a Sultan, and according 



232 GREAT EVENTS. 

gladly have followed the Grand-master, and had agreed 
with him to come on board, with all his family ; but Sol- 
iman, resolving to get him into his power, caused him to 
be watched so narrowly, that, in spite of all the disguises 
he put on, he could never get near the fleet, but was 
forced to hide himself in the ruins of some houses which 
the Turkish cannon had demohshed. The Grand-mas- 
ter, not being able to save him, took leave of the Grand- 
Signior, and was the last man that went on board his 
vessel. The first day of January, A. D. 1523, all the 
fleet, after his example, made ready for sailing ; and the 
few Knights, who survived this long and bloody siege, 
were reduced to the dismal necessity of quitting the isle 
of Rhodes, and the places and other islands that depend- 
ed on the Order, and in which the Knights of St. John 
of Jerusalem had maintained themselves, with so much 
glory, for near two hundred and twenty years. 

to the solemn treaty concluded between Zizim and the Knights of 
Rhodes, Alexander the Sixth, who then occupied the papal throne, re- 
sisted for a long time, because the Sultan paid a large sum for his 
brother's maintenance, and money was of great importance to this 
criminal and licentious Pope. At length, however, he was obliged to 
yield to the demands of the King of France. Alexander sent Zizim 
away, but not till he had poisoned him. Zizim soon died, resisting to 
the last, all importunities to become a Christian. Zizim had a son 
who went to Rhodes, and became a Christian. According to Herbe- 
lot, he there married, and had two sons and two daughters. He and 
his two sons were executed, after the surrender of Rhodes, because 
they would not abandon the Christian religion. The two daughters 
were taken by Soliman to Constantinople. The barbarous treatment 
of Zizim has been frequently the subject of discussion ; the question 
being, whether the Knights knowingly broke faith with him, or wheth- 
er the Pope was the original cause of his ill treatment. Several new 
sources have been lately made use of, to settle this question, and it 
eeems that the Knights are first of all answerable for the crime. See 
the article, Zizim, in the ' Biographie Universelle.' 



THE SACK OP ROME. 233 

THE SACK OF ROME, IN 1527. 

DESCRIBED BY JAMES BONAPARTE, AN EYEWITNESS. 

The first half of the sixteenth century contained, in an 
uncommon degree, the elements of civil fermentation and 
social disturbance, on a large scale. New doctrines of 
religion were preached, and the Reformation had begun 
to array one half of Europe against the other, not only on 
the ground of theological belief, but of political opinions, 
also. The political dissensions which arose were influ- 
enced by religious differences, and were, therefore, ac- 
cording to the common experience of history, more diffi- 
cult to be settled than any others. On the thrones of the 
largest countries, were seated young, ambitious, active, 
monarchs : — Charles the Fifth, of Germany and Spain ; 
Francis the First, of France ; and Henry the Eighth, of 
England. The dominions of Francis the First and Charles 
the Fifth, but especially of the latter, had become by in- 
heritance, marriage, election, and conquest, most com- 
plicated ; and the supremacy over many districts, or whole 
realms, was disputed between the French King and the 
German Emperor. The power of the Pope, having nec- 
essarily declined, in the same degree in which more com- 
pact, enlarged, and national, governments rose up, had 
received a most serious shock, by the Reformation. It 
could not, therefore, overawe the power of the Emperor, 
who ruled over many of the fairest portions of Europe, 
and extended his conquests over the richest parts of Amer- 
ica. Still it was strong enough to make him a desirable 
ally, or, if allied to the opposite party, a formidable enemy. 
Italy was divided into many small states, some of which 
were, nevertheless, sufficiently powerful to make them, 
like the Pope, important allies or enemies. The feudal 
militia had gradually lost its character ; and, between its 
extinction and the beginning of more regular armies, a new 
species of soldiery had arisen. This consisted of men, 
making a profession of arms, not, however, organized into 
national armies, for the well-regulated support of govern- 
ments, (for such armies did not yet exist,) but unattached 
20* 



234 GREAT EVENTS. 

to any country or government, and serving the highes 
bidder ; and that, in many cases, avowedly for the sake 
of the expected booty. These men were disbanded, as 
soon as a campaign was over, when they sought their for- 
tune elsewhere. In most cases, they were not even ani- 
mated by those mistaken notions, which are, at times, 
met with in the mere soldier of fortune, and which, errone- 
ous as they are, arise, nevertheless, from noble impulses, 
and are thus able, in some degree, either to ennoble or 
temper the passions. The almost universal object of this 
soldiery was plunder ; and no passions possess the power 
to convert man into so fearful a fiend, as he is made by 
religious fanaticism or the craving for lucre. Wo to the 
sufferer, if his persecutor is stimulated by both ! These 
men, forming movable masses, to be disposed of by any 
one who could pay them or allure them by the hope of 
plunder, increased, in their turn, the facilities for conduct- 
ing wars, and wars, too, of the worst kind ; because the 
soldiers took no interest in the general causes of the con- 
flict, nor were they generally inspired with an heroic devo- 
tion to a revered general.* On the other hand, these 
wars greatly increased the number of those, who chose to 
harass and plunder, rather than to be harassed and plun- 
dered. These and other causes produced the numerous 
wars, during the period which has been mentioned. A 
great variety existed, also, in the combination of the polit- 
ical powers, by alliances, leagues, or the mutual support 
furnished in troops or in subsidies. 

The first war, between Charles the Fifth and Francis 
the First, broke out in the Autumn of the year 1521. 
The Emperor had secretly agreed with Pope Leo the 
Tenth, and, after his death, with his successor, Adrian 
the Sixth, to drive the French entirely from the territory 
of Italy. Openly, however, Charles demanded Milan, as 
a fief of the empire, and the dukedom of Burgundy, as ap- 
pertaining to his Netherlands, but having been taken pos- 
session of by Louis the Eleventh, King of France. Fran- 
cis the First, on the other hand, demanded back from Spain, 
the kingdoms of Navarre and Naples. The fortune of war 
decided for Charles, in the years 1522 and 1523, and Duke 

* Having said thns much of the evil spirit, which animated the sol- 
diery of those periods, we ought not to omit to mention Bayard, the 
*' knight without fear or reproach," as an honorable exception. He 
may be considered as the last ray of the setting sun of chivalry. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 235 

Francis Sforza, who had been deprived of the dukedom 
of Milan, was reestablished. The Spaniards, in 1524, at- 
tacked the south of France, but were unsuccessful ; and 
Francis the First now went, in person, to Italy, where he 
laid siege to Pavia. The Imperial general, Freundsberg 
or Frundsberg,* and the Duke Charles of Bourbon, (gen- 
erally called the Constable of France,) a French Prince of 
the blood, (who, being ill-treated by the mother of Fran- 
cis, had deserted him and his country, and taken service 
under the Emperor,) came to rescue Pavia ; and, in a 
battle, fought on the twenty-fourth of February, 1525, the 
French army was beaten, and their King taken prisoner. 
He informed his mother of the misfortune which had be- 
fallen him, in these words, only : " Madam, every thing 
is lost, save honor ;" — words, with which Louis the Eigh- 
teenth concluded a letter to Napoleon, in answer to one 
written by the latter, then First Consul, in which he pro- 
posed to Louis to renounce the throne of France, for some 
principality in Italy, or a large revenue for himself and 
family. I 

Unfortunately, this fine sentence to the queen-mother 
proved but a fine sentence ; for Francis, after having 
been a captive at Madrid, for eleven months, signed a 
peace with Charles, in which, among other stipulations, 
he resigned Burgundy to the Emperor. Having returned 
to his kingdom, however, Francis declared, that the states 
of Burgundy and the parliament of Paris would not allow 
him to give up Burgundy ; and that Clement the Seventh, 
then occupying the papal see, had dispensed with the oath, 
which Francis had solemnly taken, to fulfil the conditions 
of the treaty with Charles. Francis was then about to 
become the ally of the Pope, who thus scandalously abused 
and dishonored his authority. A league was now con- 
cluded, under the auspices of the Pope, (hence called the 
holy league,) between the Pontiff, Francis, the republic of 
Venice, and the Duke of Milan, against the Emperor, 
and under the protection of Henry the Eighth, who was 
to have an estate in Naples, of thirty thousand crowns a 
year, for himself, and another of ten thousand crowns a 
year, for Cardinal Wolsey. These bribes were afterwards 
increased to much larger sums. In the early part of the 
year 1527, Duke Charles of Bourbon, supported by the 

* Or Franenberg. t Bourrienne 



236 GREAT EVENTS. 

German general, George Frunsberg, one of the chief ene- 
mies of the Pope, marched, from Upper Italy, with an army 
of about ten thousand Germans, five thousand Spaniards, 
and four thousand Italians, without the command of the 
Emperor, towards Rome, where plunder was to furnish the 
means of support, which the Imperial coffers did not sup- 
ply. Others state the army to have consisted of thirty 
thousand men. On the sixth of May, Rome was assaulted ; 
and, although Bourbon fell, mortally wounded, when he 
was lifting his foot to place it on the first step of the scal- 
ing ladder, the city was taken, and given up, for many days, 
to a pillage, which has been described, by all writers, as 
one of the most fearful, sanguinary, and criminal, scenes 
of human guilt, ever recorded, horrible as such scenes 
generally are, when a great city is taken, sword in hand, 
and given up to the soldiers. The death of Bourbon left 
the army free from the restraining authority of an ener- 
getic leader. Perhaps, however, even he could not have 
restrained the savage soldiery ; or, possibly, he would 
have been unwilling thus to thwart them, in getting that 
ample reward for their toil, to which he himself had always 
pointed, for their encouragement. At least, it is certain, 
that he would have been utterly unable to restrain their 
avarice, cruelty, and carnal appetite, during the first days 
of pillage. It is the description of this scene of horror 
and guilt, this stern page of history, which shows to what 
enormous excesses man may be led by his passions, if 
uncurbed by morality, religion, honor, and noble impulses, 
which I am about to give, in the following translation from 
the description of an eyewitness, one of the ancestors of 
Napoleon. 

James Bonaparte, the author of this account, lived at 
the court of Rome, when it was sacked. He composed 
several works, which have never been published. I am 
obliged to translate, not from the original, but from a 
French translation, a limited number only of which were 
printed, (I believe not published, but merely struck off, for 
distribution,*) under the title, ' Sack of Rome, written in 
1527, by James Bonaparte, an Eyewitness, translated from 
the Italian, by N. L. B., Florence, Grand-ducal Printing 
office, 1830.' The letters, N. L. B., are the initials of 
Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, son to Louis Bonaparte, Count 

* I owe the copy in my possession to the kindness of Joseph Bona 
parte, Count Survilliers. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 237 

St. Leu, once King of Holland. Napoleon L. Bonaparte 
died, in 1831, in Italy, during the insurrection of the peo- 
ple, which took place in that country, subsequent to the 
French revolution of 1830. 

This Work of James Bonaparte, of which I shall give the 
latter half, only, (the first half being occupied with an his- 
torical survey of Italy,) contains, likewise, the names of 
many members of the Bonaparte family, who have distin- 
guished themselves by literary works or deeds of arms, or 
whose names have been preserved, because they happened 
to be magistrates, or in other public employment. It be- 
gins with the mention of a John Bonaparte, sent, in 1178, 
from the free city of Treviso to Padua, in an official ca- 
pacity.* 

The reader will not peruse, without interest, the distinc- 
tion which James Bonaparte makes, between the more 
relentless cruelty of the Spaniards, although Roman Cath- 
olics, and the greater placability of the Germans, though 
Protestants. This richer fund of bonhomie,! manifesting 
itself, in some degree, even in this riot of crime and fe- 
rocity, and testified to by a witness, who surely must be 
considered as impartial, upon this point, (perhaps even re- 
luctantly impartial,) is a striking illustration of Bacon's 
remark, that stabbing is not our nature, (meaning thereby, 
not the nature of the Teutonic race.) 

The dawn of the sixth of May, which ushered in a 
day of sorrow and tears to so many people, found the 
Imperial army already drawn up, for attack. Duke 
Charles, (of Bourbon,) who could be recognised by his 
white dress, rode along the lines, and called upon the 
soldiers to fight bravely. Addressing, alternately, the 
Spaniards, the Germans, and the Milanese, he reminded 
them, that it was necessary to show, on this occasion, 

* This list mentions Lewis Mary Fortunatus Bonaparte, (of that 
branch of the family which was established at Sarzana, in Italy,) as 
the first, who, in 1612, passed over to the island of Corsica, in the 
times of the war with Genoa ; and that he settled at Ajaccio, where 
he became the founder of the Corsican branch of the Bonaparte family. 
This, according to the donor of the copy mentioned in the preceding 
note, is erroneous. It was a Francis Bonaparte, who established him- 
self, in 1512, in the island of Corsica, and became the founder of the 
branch, from which Napoleon descended. 

t Good nature. — I. 



238 GREAT EVENTS. 

the same ardor, the same intrepidity, which they had 
evinced in other circumstances ; that, not only their rep- 
utation, but their hves also, were that day at stake ; and 
that no other resource was left them, but to conquer, 
since the troops of the league were behind them ; and 
he urged them, that, rather than fall alive into the hands 
of their enemies, they should die by their own hands, if 
there were no other way of escape. He then renewed 
the promises which he had so often made, assuring them, 
that, besides their portions of the booty, they should be 
placed in the possession of rich domains, castles, and 
towns. He reminded the Lutherans, who had come 
with Franenberg, of the almost insufferable hunger, the 
absolute want of money, and the privations of all sorts, 
which they had been obliged to endure, solely with the 
object of taking Rome ; that their courage soon would 
open the gates of that city, into which they would enter, 
with their wives and children ; and where they might en- 
joy, at their leisure, the incredible treasures of so many 
lords, princes, bishops, and cardinals. Wherever he 
saw a group of soldiers, he accosted them, to encourage 
them for the approaching assault. 

Already had the Spaniards, urged by their accustomed 
valor, begun to break into several parts of the city. On 
the side of the Via* Julia, a division of the Swiss guard 
of the Pope had gallantly repelled the attack of the ene- 
my. The latter suffered much, too, from a battery, 
which, placed on a neighboring hill, directed a gaUing fire 
upon their flank ; two Spanish colors, already planted 
on the top of the wall, were carried off, and the ensign- 
bearers thrown down into the fosse. 

A detachment of the assailants endeavored to glide, 
without noise, into the ward, called the ward of the Holy 
Ghost, above the garden of Cardinal Ermellino, where 
the walls are lower, f 

* Via is the name for street or road. 

t Here follows a detailed description of the defective fortification 
of this point. The negligence, of leaving a part of the fortification so 
vulnerable, is ascribed to Captain Renzo da Ceri, and the other en- 
gineer officers, to whom the superintendence of the fortification had 
been intrusted. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 239 

A heavy fog had been arising from the marshes, ever 
since the break of day. It enveloped the environs, and 
finally intercepted the light of day, in such a manner, 
that it was difficult to see beyond the distance of two 
steps. On this account, the artillery of the castle St. 
Angelo could do no more injury to the enemy than other 
batteries : they fired at random ; for, so great was the 
darkness, that the artillerists had to trust rather to their 
ears than to their eyes, and were obliged, at the risk of 
wounding soldiers of the garrison, to turn their fire in 
the direction from which the reports of the hostile artillery 
came. 

While the Imperialists were fighting strenuously, and 
striving to obtain a footing in the city, Bourbon, heated 
with the passionate desh'e of victory, and at the head of 
the most intrepid of his troops, grasped, with his left hand, 
a ladder, leaning against the wall, and with his right made 
a sign to his soldiers to mount, and follow their comrades. 
At this moment, a ball, fired from an arquebuss, entered 
his side, and penetrated through the body. He fell, mor- 
tally wounded.* It is reported that, before expiring, he 
pronounced these words: ''Officers and soldiers, hide 
my death from the enemy, and keep steadily advancing. 
Victory is yours ; my mishap cannot ravish it from you." 

Thus, according to some, perished Bourbon ; accord- 
ing to others, his death was accompanied by some differ- 
ent circumstances. All, however, agree, that it took 
place under the walls of Rome ; it being the will of God, 
that his punishment should closely follow upon his offence, 
and that a man of his rank, trahorous and impious, should 
not feast his eyes in beholding the sacred city sacked 
and ruined by his sacrilegious soldiery. For the rest, 
he was an excellent general, distinguished by his liberali- 
ty and bravery. If he had been a good Christian, in- 

* The vain-glorious Benvenuto Cellini, one of the most distinguished 
artists of his age, says, in his life, that it was he who directed the can- 
non against Bourbon, and that he saw him falling. Even if Cellini's 
account could otherwise be trusted, the heavy fog, mentioned by 
Bonaparte, shows how utterly unfounded the claim of Cellini is, es- 
pecially when we consider that he was, according to his own account, 
in the castle St. Angelo. 



240 GREAT EVENTS. 

Stead of being a Protestant ;* if he had loyally served his 
King, instead of being faithless to the master to whom 
he had sworn allegiance and faith, it would not be difficult 
to count him among the most celebrated captains of mod- 
ern times. 

When the report of so fatal an accident had spread 
Ettnong the commanders of the Imperial army, their ardor 
abated, for a moment. They felt what an irreparable 
loss they had sustained, and saw that it might frustrate the 
success of their attack : yet they considered, that, thrown 
into so desperate an undertaking, it was no longer within 
their power to stop, and that there was no hope for them 
left, except in victory. Having held, therefore, a council 
of war, they agreed that it was necessary to redouble their 
efforts and the vigor of their attack, in order to snatch 
boldly from out the hands of fortune, the prize, which she 
accords to perseverance and intrepidity only. They re- 
turned to the attack, with renewed vigor, and assailed 
the besieged with more impetuosity than at the first. The 
fog, which covered them, had not yet been dissipated, 
and continued to protect them against our fire, in such a 
manner, that, in spite of the most obstinate defence, the 
soldiers of the Pope could not repel them, one step, nor 
obtain the slightest advantage over them. Nevertheless, 
our men neglected nothing, to keep them off; they threw 
upon them enormous blocks of stone, hghted torches, 
and boiling pitch ; they directed a shower of bullets, slugs, 
grapeshot, and musket-balls, toward points from which 
their enemy's ferocious warcry rose. On both sides, 
the obstinacy was unyielding and bitter, and lasted, at the 
least, a whole hour, without the smallest abatement ; but 

* James Bonaparte was a Roman Catholic priest, and the remark 
against the Protestants will appear natural enough, especially if we 
consider the time at which he wrote ; but I do not know what he 
means by Bourbon having been a Protestant, (the French translation 
has reforme,) unless he uses the expression with reference to the Lu- 
therans, who served under him. Yet nothing was more common, than 
that Protestants fought on the Roman Catholic, and Roman Catholics 
on the Protestant, side. In this case, however, Bourbon fought in the 
name of his Catholic majesty ; and died a " good Christian," in Bona- 
parte's phrase ; an expression, which, to this day, signifies, in Spanish, 
a Roman Catholic. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 241 

the Imperialists began to get the better of the conflict : 
they were the superiors, in number, and were able unceas- 
ingly to relieve each other. When one line of arquebu- 
siers had fired several rounds, it retired, and was instant- 
ly replaced by fresh troops. The besieged could not 
see the number of their enemies, thus constantly reliev- 
ing one another, nor witness their audacity, without some 
feehngs of discouragement. Though they had taken sev- 
eral banners from the enemy, and had repelled them, 
several times, from the walls ; the increasing fury of their 
adversaries gradually intimidateu them, and made them 
doubt of success. 

The detachment of Spaniards, which had directed its 
efforts against the garden of Cardinal Ermelhno, had suc- 
ceeded in penetrating into the city, either through a mur- 
derous breach, made by force of balls and pikes, or through 
the window of the cellar,* at about thirteen o'clock, (twen- 
ty minutes after nine,) in the morning, f without the knowl- 

* This cellar, or cave, is spoken of in the omitted passage, alluded 
to in a previous note. 

t According to the old way of counting time, in Italy, the hours of 
the day are reckoned from sunset. Sunset is twenty-four o'clock ; 
one o'clock, therefore, is one hour after sunset, so that the number 
designating midnight or noon, varies, but it always indicates to the la- 
borer how many hours of daylight are before him. As it is customary 
to ring the bells at sunset, to invite the people to offer an Ave-Maria, 
(or prayer to the Virgin Mary,) the twenty-fourth hour is generally 
called Ave-Maria. The French introduced the common manner of 
computing the hours, by repeating twice the number twelve, begin- 
ning with noon and midnight. But when the papal government was 
reestablished, the people preferred the old way of counting the hours, 
to the " French way," as it was called. This might be on account of 
the general adhesiveness to old customs ; or, because the old manner 
is more convenient to the field-laborer and the mechanic, in a country 
where so many arts are carried on in the open air, and the hour of 
sunset is, consequently, of the greatest importance, forming so distinct 
a demarcation, in the whole economy of industry and domestic life. In 
Florence, the *' French way" was retained, if indeed it had not been 
introduced before the Revolution. The old way was retained at 
Rome, to my personal knowledge, as late as in 1824. Whether it 
has been changed, since, I am unable to say. Where the old way 
of computing the hours is retained, the almanack gives, for each day, 
the hour and minute at which Ave-Maria is tolled, or, at which the sun 
sets ; or, which amounts to the same thing, it gives the exact number 
for noon. To one who is accustomed to the twelve-hour system, 
21 G. E. 



242 GREAT EVENTS. 

edge of the inhabitants. The detachment was followed 
by a part of the army. Since that part of the wall, which 
leads from the gate Terrione to the ward of the Holy 
Ghost, is lower than any where else, and was moreover 
badly mounted and feebly defended, many persons feel 
persuaded, that the enemy penetrated into Rome, in this 
part of the city. But if it be considered, that the first 
who entered were but few, that the only breach in the 
enclosure was on the side of the small house,* the low^er 
opening in which had been enlarged, (by the enemy,) and 
which had sustained great injury, I make no doubt that 
the reader will agree with the opinion of the greater part 
of the inhabitants, who have always believed that the en- 
emy broke first into the city through that window. This 
is at least my opinion ; but I have no objection that ev- 
ery one should believe what appears most probable to him. 
It was Renzo,f who first saw the Spaniards enter ; 
and it is said, that he cried, immediately, " There is 
the enemy ! Save, save yourselves !" If he did really 
pronounce these words, it must be agreed, that they were 
supremely ill-placed, | in his mouth. His duty, as an of- 
ficer, was to rally his people around him, to make stand 
against the enemy, to fall upon them, with impetuosity, 
and to beat them back beyond the walls, if this was pos- 
sible, § as many other captains have done, in critical cir- 
cumstances. After having given the signal of flight, as 
many persons present in the action have assured me, he 
precipitately retreated toward the Sixtine bridge, follow- 
ed by some foot-soldiers and by the populace, all in con- 
fusion and disorder, as usually happens in such routs. 
The soldiers, having learned that Renzo was flying, im- 

the Italian manner appears much more inconvenient, when merely 
reading of it, than he really finds it, in practice ; for, as already al- 
luded to, it has the convenience of showing, at any precise moment, 
how many hours of daylight are yet left ; a point of some importance, 
in Italy. 

* This house is described in the omitted part. 

t Renzo has been mentioned in a previous note. 

t Souverainement deplacees. 

§ Or to die, sword in hand. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 243 

mediately abandoned their posts. Suddenly, a hostile 
soldier cried, " Viva Espafia !* Kill, kill, every thing 
before you." The tumult was at its height. It was 
only after the greatest trouble, and having taken many 
circuitous routes, that Captain Renzo, in company with 
the fugitives, succeeded in gaining the castle St. Angelo.f 

Pope Clement heard the cries of the soldiers, and pre- 
cipitately saved himself, through a long corridor, built in 
a double wall. He caused himself to be carried from 
his palace to the castle St. Angelo. He wept, and la- 
mented that he had been betrayed by all the world, and 
on his way, he could see from the windows, his unfortu- 
nate soldiers completely routed, and pursued by ferocious 
enemies, who slew them with their halberds. The Pon- 
tiff, at his arrival at the castle, found neither provisions 
nor ammunition ; and he instantly ordered, that every 
thing should be obtained from the neighboring houses that 
could be procured in so great a confusion. 

While the supplies were procuring in such haste, the 
entrance into the castle was blocked up by such a num- 
ber of prelates, merchants, gentlemen, and ladies, that 
they could not be admitted. At length, it became pos- 
sible to let down the portcullis, but only with great diffi- 
culty, on account of the accumulated rust.J More than 
three thousand persons were crowded together in the 
interior. Among these, were a great number of distin- 
guished persons, including all the cardinals, except four, 
who believed that they might venture to remain in their 
palaces, because they were chiefs of the Ghibelline par- 

* Pronounced, Viva Espanya, meaning, Spain for ever ! 

t The castle St. Angelo is a fort, situated on the right bank of the 
Tiber, (looking down the river,) in the north of Rome, and close to 
the river. It is built upon, and principally consists of, the stupendous 
remains of the mausoleum which Adrian caused to be built, to receive 
his ashes, in the gardens of Domitian, nearly over against the mauso- 
leum of Augustus. The Popes have repeatedly used it as a place of 
refuge against foreign enemies, or the revolted populace. On the top 
of the main building, the remaining moles of the mausoleum, stands a 
colossal statue of the archangel St. Michael, from which the fort de- 
rives its present name. 

X It must be owned, that the Pope could not have had very active 
and wise officers. 



244 GREAT EVENTS. 

ty.* Cardinal Pucci received several severe blows on 
the head, before he arrived at the castle St. Angelo, into 
which he was carried, almost dead, through a window, by 
his servants. Cardinal Ermellino, together with many 
other gentlemen, caused themselves to be hoisted in a 
basket upon the wall of the castle. 

A totally different result had been anticipated. The 
Florentine merchants, the prelates, and other people, ran 
to and fro, to find a retreat. It was no longer possible 
to leave Rome. Some retreated into the houses of the 
Colonna family ;f others, into those which belonged to 
Spaniards, Flemish, and Germans, J who were establish- 
ed at Rome ; and still others sought safety in the palaces 
of the four Ghibelline cardinals. § 

It is painful to observe, that none of the captains or 
soldiers, in the service of the Church, tried, in this great 
catastrophe, to cut off the bridge, and to defend the walls 
of the ward Trastevere ;|| that not one resolved to die, 
sword in hand, rather than basely to give himself up to an 
implacable enemy. All fled to save themselves, aug- 
menting, by the disorder of their retreat, the terror of the 
lower classes, and yielding to their adversaries the cer- 
tainty of victory. If all the commanders had agreed with 

* The Imperial party. 

t The Colonnas were one of the most famous families of Rome, in 
the middle ages and at later periods. Pope Martin the Fifth, elected 
m 1417, by the council at Constance, and who is mentioned in the 
account of the death of Huss, given in this Volume, was of the Colon- 
na family. The patron of Petrarch was likewise one of its members. 
Distinguished generals, statesmen, and prelates, have proceeded from 
this family. They were Ghibellines, or for the Emperor ; people, 
therefore, hoped they should be safe in their palaces. 

t Charles being King of Spain, Emperor of Germany, and lord of 
the Netherlands, people hoped that the houses of his subjects in Rome 
would aftbrd an asylum, sufficiently sacred, in the eyes of a soldiery 
fighting in his name. 

§ The body of cardinals was divided into factions, as they term- 
ed it ; that is, parties, siding with one or the other of the most po- 
tent monarchs, and receiving pensions for their support ; as Frederic 
the Second of Prussia paid Panin, minister to Catharine the Second, 
to support his interest against Potemkin, and as formerly so many 
ministers drew pensions from foreign powers. 

li Which means, beyond the Tiber. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 245 

one another, and concerted the proper measures to defend 
the Hves and property of their fellow-citizens, their efforts 
would have been crowned with complete success.* It 
would have been necessary to set fire to the wood and 
to the fascines which covered the bridge, as the Romans 
did, in olden times, when Horatius Codes heroically re- 
solved to receive, upon his single breast, the shock of 
the enemy. The Imperialists would have been placed, 
by the destruction of the bridge, in the same difficulty in 
which they found themselves before their entry into the 
city. Indeed, their situation would have been still more 
disadvantageous, exposed, as they would have been, to 
the continual fire from the castle St. Angelo.f Moreo 
ver, a short time after the entry of the enemy, sever- 
al horse and foot of the black bands, who could have 
entered so easily into Rome by the Porta di Populo,:j: 
and vigorously impeded the progress of the Imperialists, 
arrived at Monte Rotondo.§ If the Roman soldiers had 
not too soon given up the idea of defending the city, they 
would have profited by this reenforcement to aggravate 
the difficulties of the position in which the enemy would 
have been placed, and to reanimate the fainting zeal of 
their allies. By this means, they would have secured 
the liberty of the Pontiff. 

When the Spaniards perceived Renzo, and those who 
defended themselves behind the walls and entrenchments, 
basely taking to flight, they called, with great noise, upon 

* Hardly ! For the soldiers of the Pope did not fight for "fellow- 
citizens," as Bonaparte expresses it. They were mercenaries, like 
the assailants ; but there was this difference : the latter fought for 
booty, perhaps existence, because Lutrec, the commander of the army 
of the league, it was feared, might approach daily ; while the besieged 
fought but for their pay, and perhaps some gratuity, in case of victory. 

t But Bonaparte has before told us, that there was no powder in the 
castle St. Angelo. No essential change would have been produced 
by such means as those mentioned above, in a war of tried, gallant, 
and furious, soldiers, against men who had not even looked after the 
portcullis, and greased it in time. 

t Porta di Populo, or Gate of the People, the ancient Porta Flami- 
nia, the northern gate of Rome, near the Tiber ; the gate through 
which every foreigner, who comes from Upper Italy, enters. 

§ Four leagues north-northeast of Rome. 
21* 



246 GREAT EVENTS. 

their comrades without ; these promptly joined them, and 
they followed up their advantages together. They thought 
no longer of any thing else, but of killing all with whom 
they should meet. From time to time, those of our sol- 
diers, who did not run like their fellows, and were desirous 
of facing the enemy, seeing themselves overwhelmed by 
numbers, and finding no other means of escape, adroitly 
ghded among the victors, and turned their arms against 
the inhabitants, who, but an instant before, were their 
friends. On the other side, the German soldiers, having 
passed the high trenches, in various places, cut the pop- 
ulace into pieces, as they hastened to throw down their 
arms and sue for quarter. Not one of the Roman sol- 
diers could escape the wrath of the conquerors. In vain 
did they retreat, without arms, into the churches or sac- 
risties ; in vain did they embrace the altars ; in places, 
which even the most cruel of men, the Goth Totilas and 
the Vandal Genseric, had respected, they were massa- 
cred, without mercy. Thus, the Imperialists possessed 
themselves, in a very short time, and almost without fur- 
ther loss, of the suburbs of Rome. 

Nearly the whole army had entered oy the gate of 
Pancratius, broken and shattered by the terrible shocks 
it had sustained, and by the carrying of the intrench- 
ments. It was now restored by the provisions found in 
the place of which it had taken possession. The chiefs 
gave out, that, on account of the death of Bourbon, and 
also for other reasons, they intended to treat with the 
Pope. His Hohness* believed them sincere. The am- 
bassador of Portugal was sent to the Spanish captains, to 
treat with them. These received him with new protes- 
tations of their desire to come to some arrangement. In 
truth, they were already masters of one part of the 
city ; but they were not yet sure whether they would be 
able to cross the Tiber. They artfully feigned to incline 
toward peace ; and, after having thus carried on their de- 
ception, for some time, they held a council with the Ger- 
man commanders. Upon leaving this council of war, 

* The Pope is styled his Holiness, as a King is called his Majesty. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 247 

they declared that it was useless any longer to negotiate ; 
that they would no longer be held back ; and that they 
did not care how fatigued their troops were ; they would 
have the rest of the city. They had thus obtained time 
to inform themselves of the means which the inhabitants 
had to defend themselves, and to assure themselves that 
no resistance need be feared from this panic-stricken mul- 
titude. They marched, therefore, at the sound of trum- 
pets, drums, and other military instruments, toward the 
great entrance into the city proper, where they had been 
preceded by a thousand arquebusiers, who had received 
orders to surprise the troops, who, it was presumed, would 
be found placed to defend it. But it was undefended ; 
the kw men, to whom this post had been assigned, had 
run away, as soon as they had perceived the approaching 
enemy, seized with such a panic, that they had not even 
let down the portcullis. Two Spanish archers passed 
the entrance, and threw themselves boldly into the city. 
They were received with a shower of balls and bullets, 
but neither of them was hit. The Spaniards pursued their 
way, without fearing the death which threatened them, 
from all sides, and entered the neighboring square, of 
which they immediately took possession, with the assist- 
ance of their comrades, who had followed them. Imme- 
diately after, without losing any time, they, with the rest 
of the army, proceeded toward the Porta Settimiana, 
''Septimian Gate.) The Italians, commanded by Lew- 
s de Gonzagua, surnamed Rodomont,* on account of 
his bravery, and of the terror, with which he inspired his 
enemies, passed the wall which leads from the gate of 
St. Pancratius to the Septimian gate, and traversed the 
vineyard of the Janiculum.f They drove the Papal sol- 
diers from this place, with great ease, and rejoined the 
bulk of the army near the Sixtine bridge, which they 
boldly passed, without meeting with much opposition. 

* Rodomont is the name of the fictitious hero, celebrated in the 
great epic of Ariosto. 

t The Mons Janiculus, or the Janiculum, a hill or ridge on the west 
of Rome, from which the most commanding view of the city may be 
enjoyed. 



248 GREAT EVENTS. 

They killed all the fugitives, upon whom they could seize, 
and made their general entry into the city, forty thousand* 
strong, divided into various troops : — twenty thousand 
Germans, six thousand Spaniards, and the rest Italians, 
commanded by Fabricius Colonna, and the abovemen- 
tioned Gonzagua, — old, heavy-armed foot or lighthorse, 
of all nations, without a common general-in-chief, gather- 
ed together, under their colors, solely by the hope of 
booty. Among their officers, were observed, Ferdinand 
Gonzagua, and Philibert of Orange, a Fleming, to whom, 
after the death of Bourbon, the soldiers had assigned the 
chief command. 

After having ravaged all the suburbs, and passed the 
Sixtine bridge, they took their march toward the castle 
St. Angelo, whither, as they had heard, the Pope had 
retired ; they hoped thus to possess themselves of the 
persons both of the Pontiff and the other chiefs of the 
Roman Church. They attacked the casde, with fury. 
A Spanish colonel, at the head of his regiment, exerted 
himself to blow up the gate ; but he paid the penalty due 
to his temerity. He lost his life, and a large number of 
his followers perished with him. The others, discour- 
aged by this failure, considered, for the moment, the dif- 
ficulties of the place insurmountable. They placed strong 
guards there, and returned to consummate the ruin of the 
Roman people. These latter were petrified, with fear ; 
all the brave men, who might have been successfully op- 
posed to the fury of the barbarians, had disappeared ; 
they hoped no longer for aid, from without. Dismayed, 
they thought their last hour had come, and resigned them- 
selves, beforehand, to the treatment which they had to 
expect at the hands of so infuriated a soldiery. They 
envied the lot of those w^ho had had the good fortune to 
fall under the walls of Rome, while defending their coun- 
try. A great number of inhabitants, separated already, 
as it were, from the goods of this world, would have con- 
sidered themselves happy, could they but appease the 
fury of the conquerors at the price of all they possessed. 

* This number, according to the statement given in the irtroduc* 
tory remarks, is much too large. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 249 

In fact, the horror of their destiny was to realize all the 
terrors which their imagination had created. 

The army, giving up the siege of the castle, divided 
itself into several bodies, proceeding into different quar- 
ters. They perceived, in passing along, fathers and 
mothers of families, stationed at the threshold of palaces, 
or at the entrance of their houses, in despair, at the loss 
of their sons, killed in combat, and horror-struck, at the 
misery which yet threatened their doomed city. These 
unfortunate beings, dressed in mourning, offered to the 
enemy, their houses, furniture, all their goods, and, ijielt- 
ing into tears, asked, with the voice of supplicants, that 
they would spare their lives. These touching prayers 
had not, however, the power to move the hearts of the 
ferocious soldiers. As though the sound of drums and 
trumpets had animated them for carnage, they threw 
themselves, sword in hand, upon these wretched beings, 
and, without distinction of age, sex, or place, slew all 
they could espy. The foreigners were spared no more 
than the Romans, because the murderers fired indifferent- 
ly upon both, without any other motive than a thirst for 
blood. Exasperated by the death of their chief, they de- 
filed themselves with barbarities, of which history hardl;y 
shows any other instance. Finding no longer any resist 
ance, they became, in a short time, complete masters of 
this ancient and noble city, where treasures were accu- 
mulated, such as were sufficient to satisfy an army, the 
most greedy for pillage. 

The Spaniards were the first who became gorged 
with carnage, and felt some feeling of humanity reappear- 
ing within them ; some compassion for the conquered, 
who, though enemies, were Christians. They ceased 
to slay those that fell into their hands, and contented 
themselves with making them prisoners. When the 
Germans saw this, and perceived that the Spanish regi- 
ments did no longer follow what they themselves termed the 
laws of war, they began to suspect the latter of treason. 
The Spanish officers, in order to dissuade them, made 
them understand, that the city was taken, and abandoned 
by those who might have defended it ; that nothing was to 



250 GREAT EVEMb. 

be feared, on their score ; that, as the inhabitants had con- 
cealed everything most valuable, it was advisable to grant 
life to those who would discover their treasures. The Ger- 
mans perceived the weight of this remark. They, on 
their part, began now, likewise, to stop the passers-by, 
or the Romans whom they found on the thresholds of 
their doors, and who implored their mercy. They forc- 
ed the unhappy beings to open their rooms, from which 
they carried off every thing that they conveniently could. 
They did not stop at this species of robbery. They 
committed outrageous violence upon all women whom 
they met. The prisoners were witnesses to these heart- 
rending scenes ; but who could oppose them ? No one 
dared even to hft his voice. The prisoners were pro- 
hibited from crying out, at calamities, sufficient to move 
hearts of flint, and to touch the most impious. These 
barbarians had consideration neither for elevated rank, 
nor nobility of blood, nor the prayers of beauty, nor the 
tears of mothers. Their hearts were securely closed 
against every sentiment of humanity. Daughters were 
seen throwing themselves into the arms of their unfortu- 
nate mothers, and these seizing the soldiers by their 
beards or hair, in order to hinder them from consummat- 
ing their horrid purposes. Useless efforts ! All these 
supplications, and this resistance, served only to irritate 
the offenders still more. They shamefully abused and 
tortured their defenceless prisoners, one after the other, 
and then killed them, before the very eyes of their fathers 
or husbands, whom they kept securely bound. These, 
overwhelmed with horror, at the shocking spectacle, had 
no longer tears to shed, nor any voice for complaifTt. 
They contemplated the victims, with a fixed eye, inani- 
mate, like statues. Some mothers, no longer able to en- 
dure the sight, tore out their own eyes ;* others retreat- 

* A circumstance, so shocking as this, should not be recorded, but 
on the most undoubted evidence. As the statement now reads, it 
appears too much like a fictitious embellishment : for, generally 
speaking, such would hardly ever be the conduct of a mother, on wit- 
nessing the horrible sufferings of her daughter. Still, we might pos- 
sibly imagine such a violence against the senses which carry the aw- 
Tul fact to the soul, in the best days of ancient Rome, in some wo- 



THE SACK OF ROME. 251 

ed into subterraneous caverns, where, nobody daring to 
carry them food, they died, of hunger. 

The houses of private persons were not the only places 
of these abominations ; they were committed even in the 
holy temples, in the chapels consecrated to God, where 
married and unmarried women, of all classes, had taken 
refuge, full of hope of the Divine protection. No human 
hand could protect them against the danger. They were 
discovered by the heretics, who were soon joined by the 
Italians, and experienced the same treatment to which 
the inmates in the private houses had been subjected. 

In the midst of the general stupor, some traits of Ro- 
man firmness were nevertheless observed.* Several 
fathers, with daggers in their hands, preferred to immo- 
late their unhappy daughters, rather than suffer them to 
fall into the hands of the conquerors ; but, it makes us 
tremble to say it, they could not, even thus, always pro- 
tect them against outrage. 

The nunneries were no more spared, than the churches. 
These audacious contemners of objects respected by 
the faithfulf entered, like enraged wolves into a sheep- 
fold, and transformed these sacred retreats into places of 

man, of a heroism even then peculiar ; but of modern Rome, and the 
time of which we are speaking, such a thing is not credible. Noth- 
ing is easier than to imagine a mother, who has her hands free, (which 
to do what is here recorded, she must have,) falling madly upon him 
who sacrifices her daughter ; but this putting out her own eyes has 
something too theatrical in it. 

* The reader must have observed, by this and several previous 
passages, that the author writes in the style of the writers in the 
fifth, sixth, and later, centuries, always styling the conquerors bar- 
barians, but forgetting that the Romans, for whom, with the same 
name, there is also claimed an affinity of character to that of the 
ancient Romans, were far worse. They were, indeed, a cowardly, 
degenerate, and vicious, set, without patriotism ; without public 
spirit, of any sort ; without even the common valor of men, who are 
ashamed of being suspected of cowardice ; and especially destitute, 
about this period, of the virtue of chastity. 

t The faithful, here, means Roman Catholic ; the contemners, 
Protestants. It will appear from the account of James Bonaparte 
himself, and is well known by every one who is familiar with the 
details of those or subsequent wars in the seventeenth century, how 
indifferent it was, whether the conquerors were Roman Catholic or 



252 GREAT EVENTS. 

outrage. *=**#**** Where they found no booty, 
they fired the houses ; especially, wherever the inhabi- 
tants showed the slightest indication of resistance. 

It was, as if this magnificent city, the see of the visi- 
ble chief of the Church, so often the theatre of the most 
brilliant triumphs, of the glory of the most shining deeds, 
had for centuries been doomed to become the prey of 
these savages. 

When they had somewhat satiated their thirst for blood, 
they directed their attention to the immense riches of the 
sacred places. The Lutherans, who composed a great 
part of this army, did not consider themselves subject to 
any species of regard or consideration. Hardly had they 
set foot into a church, before their bloody hands were 
stretched out, to grasp the chalices, images, crosses, or 
precious vessels, which struck their eyes. Whenever 
they found relics, they threw them contemptuously on 
the ground. How many of these should we not have 
lost, if pious Romans, witnesses of these profanations, 
had not carefully collected these venerable remains, and 
concealed and carried them away, in order to restore them, 
at a later period ! They tore the pictures of the saints 
from the walls, to soil, tear, or burn, them. They de- 
faced the al fresco* paintings ; and some of them went into 
the sacristies, to dress themselves in the sacerdotal vest- 
ments, and, ascending upon the altar, they officiated, by 
way of derision, like the ministers of our religion ; but, 
instead of prayers, they uttered blasphemies. f 

In the street, one could every moment meet servants 
of the army, who carried large packages of sacred vest- 
ments, or other richly-embroidered articles, chandeliers, 
and vessels of gold or silver. 

Scenes, more deplorable, shocked the eye, in other 

Protestant, as respected their treatment of places of worship, and 
other buildings consecrated to religious purposes. 

* Alfresco paintings are done on the fresh lime, with which the 
wall is covered. 

t Before the Reformation, fools' masses, so called, used to be eel 
ebrated, in which the forms of the whole mass was gone through 
with, but caricatured with a view to amuse the audience. Thii 
shpckiog abuse took place, La several countries, about Easter. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 253 

places. Spaniards and Germans could be seen forcing, 
prisoners of all ages and ranks in society, by blows with 
sticks, to lead them to their dwellings, which already had 
been pillaged and ravaged, from the cellar to the garret. 
They imprisoned them, here, in order to extort more 
money from them. A great number of inhabitants were 
lying lifeless on the pavement, covered with mire and 
blood. They had met with their death, in trying to re- 
sist the conquerors. Between them, were lying others, 
in whom there was yet some life remaining, but who 
were condemned to perish, forgotten and neglected by 
all, for want of assistance. 

In the midst of disorder, frequently a man, a woman, 
and a child, were seen, precipitating themselves from the 
highest windows, — preferring rather to die, thus mutilated, 
on the pavement, to falling into the hands of these furious 
troops. Sometimes, the soldiers themselves threw them 
out. If some wretch succeeded in escaping, he was at 
once pursued, and slain ; a fate which cannot be recount- 
ed, without trembling. 

The conquerors showed no more regard for the one 
party than for the other, and treated their countrymen, 
who had been, for many years, established in Rome, no 
better than the Roman courtiers and prelates. They did 
not even spare the ambassadors of the kings, and still 
less the cardinals, who, trusting too much to their well- 
known attachment to the Emperor, and to their rank and 
popularity, had believed that they might remain without 
danger, in their palaces, and that they would even be 
treated with distinction by the enemy. They, with all 
who had taken refuge in their palaces, in the hope of 
finding an asylum, were made prisoners. 

I will mention, here, one circumstance, which borders 
on the ludicrous, and which may show the disposition of 
troops thus transported with fury. While they were run- 
ning hither and thither, eager only to rob, to destroy, and 
to kill, and penetrating into stores and workshops, about 
ten Spaniards had entered a shop of a superior character. 
Among various packages, a large bag was found, filled 
with the smallest copper coin, which these criminals, 
22 G. E. 



254 GREAT EVENTS. 

blinded by cupidity, took for a bag filled with gold. As 
soon as they had communicated their important discovery 
to each other, they watched that no one else should enter 
the same house, who might share in their plunder. They 
desired to retain their precious booty for themselves, 
alone. A German company passed in the neighborhood, 
and perceiving that those who were within would not even 
allow them to approach the house, they did not doubt, 
for a moment, that there must be some rich booty, of 
which the Spaniards declined to allow them a share. 
Not to lose much time, of the preciousness of which they 
were fully sensible, they fired at the house, threw pow- 
der into it, and set it on fire ; saying, that it was unjust, 
that the Germans should carry the victory, and the 
Spaniards should gather the fruits of it. Before they 
departed, the whole shop was in flames ; and it was en- 
tirely consumed, with many who were within, — a just ret- 
ribution for their insatiable cupidity. 

Among the various precious stones, which a prelate, 
made prisoner by the Germans, had about him, there 
was a diamond, worth about three or four hundred dol- 
lars. One of the soldiers, who tried to pull the ring, in 
which the diamond was set, from his finger, lost his pa- 
tience, when a corporal of his company, seeing his diffi- 
culties, said, "Wait, I'll get it for thee." Instantly, 
he drew a knife, cut off the prelate's finger, and handed 
it to the soldier, who, having pulled off the ring, threw 
the finger into the face of the Cardinal.* 

The fear of the approaching army of the League, alone, 
caused a diminution of murder and assassination. The 
Chief gave orders to put a stop to plunder, which imme- 
diately ceased, in all parts of the city, and the soldiers 
retired, to rest themselves, and to enjoy, more composed- 
ly, the fruits of rapine. 

The Spaniards had left a very strong post at the gates 
of the castle St. Angelo, to prevent the escape of the 
Pope and the Cardinals, during the night, with the im- 

* It would appear from what Bonaparte has previously stated, that 
this must have been a cardinal on the Emperor's side, the otheyp b§ 
ing in the castle, with the Pope, 



THE SACK OF ROME. 255 

mense riches which they had about them, in the castle. 
In order to be still more secure of their object, they had 
given order to some colonels, closely to besiege the cas- 
tle. These immediately traced trenches, and caused a 
very deep fosse to be dug. Criminals, whom they had 
taken out of the prisons, were destined for this work ; 
they were guarded, and driven on in their work, by sol- 
diers. As soon as the trenches were finished, the regu- 
lar blockade was begun, in so rigorous and cruel a man- 
ner, that, one day, the soldiers having found an old wo- 
man, who carried lettuce, for the table of the Pope, they 
hanged her in front of the castle. They likewise killed, 
with shot from an arquebuse, some children who were 
gathenng herbs and placing them in a basket, which had 
been let down from the bastions of the castle. 

The more elevated and respectable the rank of their 
prisoners, the more refined and prolonged were the tor- 
ments they had to endure. Some remained, for several 
days, suspended by their arms, in the air ; others were 
suspended by their feet, over the water, and threatened 
that the rope should be cut, if they would not discover 
their treasures. Many were unmercifully beaten ; others 
burned with a red-hot iron, in various parts of the body. 
The barbarians invented new tortures ; they drove fine 
splinters under the nails of the fingers or toes ; they poured 
molten lead into the throat ; pulled out the teeth of their 
victims ; and, in short, mutilated them, in all possible ways. * 

Hieronymus de Camerino, an officer in the household 
of Cardinal Cibo, had been charged by the Spaniards 
with a tax, which he could not pay, and to force him, 
nevertheless, to do it, the most cruel tortures were inflict- 
ed upon him. In the midst of them, he succeeded in 

* Fanaticism and avarice have been, probably, the most ingenious 
inventors of tortures ; at least, in more modern times. We have 
only to remember the exquisitely-refined tortures, to which the Span 
iards subjected the Indians, from lust for gold, or the means of tor 
turing used m the Thirty Years' War, to force out the confession of 
hidden treasures. Not uncommon, at that period, was the slowly 
sawing asunder of the tongue with a horse-hair. The Inquisition 
comes in, likewise, for a large share in refined ingenuity for the pur- 
pose of inflicting pain. 



256 GREAT EVENTS, 

approaching a window, and, seizing upon a favorable mo- 
ment, he threw himself out, head foremost ; and thus, by 
his death, defeated their cruelty and avarice. 

A certain John Ansaldi, a Florentine, had been sub- 
jected to excruciating torments, and, to free himself, had 
promised to his persecutors a thousand dollars. He 
counted them out, when these barbarians demanded gold 
ducats. As he had none, they recommenced tormenting 
him. Incapable any longer of supporting the pain, he 
threw himself upon his executioner, tore from him the 
dagger, plunged it into his breast, and then, turning it 
toward his own, buried it there. 

The German foot-soldiers led about, in th-e streets, 
Roman prelates, decked with all the ornaments and in- 
signia of their dignity, to expose them to the ridicule of 
the people. A company of Lutherans, likewise, to 
mock the ceremonies of the Roman church, carried 
Cardinal Aracela on a bier, through the streets of Rome, 
singing, at the same time, the service for the dead. At 
last, they stopped in front of a church, where, to carry 
the mockery still further, they pronounced a sort of fu- 
neral oration, in which they uttered, instead of praise, 
revolting obscenities and atrocious calumnies. Thence, 
they carried him home, and, according to their custom, 
they rioted, before his own eyes, in brutal orgies, drink- 
ing his best wines out of golden vessels, sacred, on ac- 
count of the church service, for which they had been 
destined. The same Cardinal was seen entering several 
houses, behind some German or Spanish horsemen, who 
thus carried him about, bound, like a mean criminal, in 
order to borrow the sums demanded for his ransom. 

The Cardinal of Sienna, having been, at all times, de- 
voted to the interests of the Emperor, as his ancestors 
had likewise been, after having bought, from the Span- 
iards, the safety of his house, fell into the hands of 
the Germans. These ravaged his palace, beat him and 
carried him away prisoner, and he was obliged to pay 
them five thousand dollars, for his ransom. The Cardi- 
nal della Minerva,* and the other prelates, whether Ro- 

* There is a church in Rome, built upon the foundation of an an- 



THE SACK OF ROME. 257 

man, Spanish, or German, were forced to suffer, in like 
manner, and were likewise dragged in procession through 
the town, to amuse the populace. 

The Marchioness of Mantua was taxed, for her palace, 
at the rate of fifty thousand dollars, which were paid by- 
merchants and other people, who had taken refuge with 
her. It has been said, that her son, Don Fernando, an 
officer in the hostile army, obtained ten thousand dollars 
of this sum, for his share. 

One of our compatriots, Bernard Bracci, had been 
discovered and arrested by some lighthorse, who con- 
ducted him to the bank of a certain German merchant, 
of the name of Bartholomew, where he went to obtain 
seven thousand dollars, to the payment of which he had 
been obliged to consent, in order to escape death. On 
their way, they met, on the Sixtine bridge, the Marquis 
della Motta, one of the chiefs of the army, who asked 
them whither and for what purpose they were carrying 
ofi' their prisoner. They told him their object, and the 
sum they had agreed to take, as ransom. " This ran- 
som," said he, "is trifling ; throw him instantly into the 
Tiber, if he does not pay five thousand dollars more, on 
my account." The soldiers placed their prisoner on 
their shoulders, to throw him over the bridge ; but, in or- 
der to save his life, he paid the additional five thousand 
dollars. 

The Spaniards respected the sacred places, and did 
not touch the relics ; but they surpassed the Germans, in 
cruelty and perfidy. When once the fury of the first 
shock had passed, the latter did not inflict any additional 
bad treatment upon their prisoners. They contented 
themselves with such sums of money, as had been volun- 
tarily offered and paid to them. A large number of them 
even showed great respect for young and beautiful wo- 
men, treated them with kindness and humanity, and, in 
order to remove them from all danger of outrage, caused 

cient temple of Minerva, and dedicated to Mary. The church, 
therefore, is called, St. Maria sopra Minerva. The above Cardinal 
was probably bishop or priest of this church, and, for brevity's sake, 
called della Minerva. 

22* 



258 GREAT EVENTS. 

them to retire into safe places. Several prisoners, prof- 
iting by the good disposition of these Germans, offered 
to them, as soon as they had fallen into their hands, ran- 
soms, which were very moderate, in proportion to their 
ability to pay. Their propositions were accepted, with- 
out difficulty. This moderation, on the part of the Ger- 
man soldiers, cannot be attributed to the rich booty which 
they possessed, and which was to be divided among a 
(ew, nor to the poverty, which overwhelmed them, at 
home, and which might have made sums, quite small, in 
themselves, appear considerable, in their eyes. It pro- 
ceeded from a greater fund of humanity and equity. The 
Spaniards, on the contrary, who were quite as poor as the 
Germans, and perhaps even poorer, did not show, either 
in the first moment of victory or at a later period, so 
much moderation, in the pillage, and conducted themselves 
with far less consideration toward their prisoners. 

We have seen these avaricious and cruel enemies, 
mercilessly glutting their enraged temper by an unbridled 
violence to all Divine and human things. They would 
not suffer a single spot in Rome to remain sacred from 
their rage. Some palaces, nevertheless, had escaped 
their fury.* Many people had fled to them, — lawyers, 
merchants, and others, — whom the kindness of some lords, 
who were able to make themselves respected by the sol- 
diery, had protected against the first impetuosity of the 
conquerors. However, when the latter were tired of 
being idle, they assembled to the sound of fifes, drums, 
and trumpets, and arranged themselves, as though to be- 
gin anew the siege of the city. They then furiously at- 
tacked these palaces, not caring for the defence which 
was made, nor for the entreaties nor orders of their su- 
periors, and fired upon their comrades, who defended the 

* There is, at the end of the French translation of the Sack of 
Rome, the copy of a contract, properly drawn up by a notary, for 
the ransom of one of these palaces. It appears, from the barbarous 
Latin, in which it is written, that Cardinal de Valle, and other pre- 
lates, engaged to pay enormous sums and give up certain specified 
plate, for which they and above a hundred persons, all enumerated, 
shall be ransomed. The persons are of the most various professions, 
trades, sexes, and ages. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 259 

palaces, from within. When they were repelled, as fre- 
quently happened, they revenged themselves, by setting 
fire to the houses : upon this, they proceeded to pillage, 
unless very acceptable propositions were made to them ; 
that is to say, unless enormous ransoms were paid. 
Some of those, who had first treated with the Spaniards, 
were afterwards pressed by the Germans, and again oblig- 
ed to ransom themselves, or see their houses burned down. 

The conquerors obtained so rich a booty, that the 
crosses, images, and other ornaments of silver, the sculp- 
tures, and precious paintings, seized by them, were not 
estimated at a fourth part of their real value ; and the 
things which they prized, above all others, were jewelry, 
and pure gold, which take up but little room. When 
they sold these objects, they valued the gold only, and 
asked nothing for the precious stones, which, with infinite 
art, were set in the metal, and the value of which was 
much higher than that of the settings. How many stat- 
ues of marble and bronze, sculptured by the rarest talent, 
how many medals of emperors, kings, and popes, pre- 
served for many centuries, collected with the greatest 
pains, going back to early antiquity, and of exquisite 
workmanship, became, in one moment, the prey of these 
barbarians ? Not to speak of all the articles of value, 
which were carried off, the loss is valued at two millions 
of gold, and the ransoms imposed amount to the same 
sum. 

The German troops, having come with George Fran- 
ensberg almost in a state of complete nudity, their feet 
without shoes, their clothes in tatters, and their bodies 
attenuated by hunger, were suddenly seen superbly dress- 
ed, in beautiful garments of brocade, gold-cloth, or silk, 
decked with the richest chains and magnificent bracelets, 
and their breasts covered with jewels, of rare beauty. 
These new lords insolently promenaded through the 
streets of the city, upon mules, which belonged to the 
prelates, and amused themselves with imitating the Pope 
and cardinals. They had, by their sides, their wives or 
concubines, in embroidered robes, also set with precious 
stones, and wearing necklaces, taken from the sacred 



260 GREAT EVENTS. 

vessels in vvblch the host is elevated or sacred relics 
exhibited, or from the mitres or precious vestments and 
ornaments of the Pope. In their train followed a long 
suite of lackeys and pages, in fine liveries. 

The sumptuous habitations of the cardinals, the most 
majestic churches, and the chapel of the Pope, had been 
transformed into stables. Not now were heard, as in 
times of peace, chants and religious hymns ; instead of 
psalms and choirs, their walls reechoed the oaths and 
obscenities of the grooms who curried the horses. The 
crucifixes were riddled with balls ; the paintings, half 
burnt, lay about on the ground, where they and the relics 
were trampled upon, by men and horses. 

This tyranny of the conquerors lasted, not for days, 
nor weeks, but whole months ; and, as if the guilty inhab- 
itants of Rome were not yet sufficiently chastised, God 
added still another calamity. These foreign troops were 
stricken with such blindness, and impelled by so short- 
sighted a malignity, that they continually committed vio- 
lence against those who carried provisions into town, foi 
the market. Soon, therefore, nobody dared any longer 
to go to the city, which, of course, remained without 
sufficient food. The soldiers knew no longer where 
they should find any thing to eat. The stores in Rome 
as well as in the country were exhausted. After having 
eaten the horses, asses, dogs, cats, and even rats, which 
could be caught in the houses, the lowest classes were 
constrained to live upon roots, herbs, and other things, 
which, although they may be masticated, afford hardly 
any sustenance. The people of this class soon ceased 
to resemble men, but looked like phantoms or living 
skeletons. The hunger, which devoured them, created 
a great mortality among them, and this, in turn, caused 
a plague. There was not a street in Rome, which was 
not encumbered with those, dead or dying of pestilence, 
and with others, who, with the little strength yet remain- 
ing in them, implored death to put an end to their suffer- 
ings. The contagion soon passed from the people to the 
soldiers ; it advanced from house to house, from street to 
street. Its rapidity may be compared to those artificial 



THE SACK OF ROME. 261' 

fires, used to celebrate public festivals, when a single 
spark, in falling upon the powder, suffices to set the whole 
on fire, and all the single parts of which soon catch the 
consuming flame, one from the other.* 

In the midst of these cries and tears, of these fires, 
and incessant devastations by death, I shall endeavor to 
describe the situation of the Pontiff. He was sufficiently 
humbled, by the difference of his past grandeur and his 
present low condition. How often did he turn his eyes, 
full of tears, toward heaven ! He beat his breast, while 
exclaiming : '' Deus mens in te speravi ; salvum me fac 
ex omnibus persequentibus me, et libera me."f 

A long time after the taking and sacking of the city, 
Pompey ColonnaJ arrived, and seemed much to enjoy 
the wretched extremity to which the Pope was reduced. 
Nevertheless, when he came to see destruction and death, 
every where ; when he heard weeping and sighing, on all 
sides ; and when he met, in every street, children, ladies, 
prelates, and noble citizens, imploring assistance and call- 
ing out for compassion ; he was, in turn, affected by the 
most painful sentiments. He could not, at the sight of 
all the miseries of the city and the environs, restrain his 
tears ; and his grief became the more acute, when he 
considered that It w^as himself who had caused the ruin 
of his country, without having succeeded In overthrowing 
the power of his enemy, who was then In safety in the 
castle St. Angelo. He could not but see, that he him- 
self, the Instigator of this Invasion, had merited that all 
these evils should have broken in upon him, rather than 

* It must be remembered, that these feux dejoie, or artificial fire- 
works, were then something new and rare ; the comparison, other- 
wise not appropriate, may thus be excused. 

t The seventh Psalm, beginning, in the English translation, " O 
Lord ! my God, in Thee do I put my trust ; save me from all them 
that persecute me, and deliver me." 

t Pompey Colonna was cardinal, but did not resign his military 
character on account of his ecclesiastic dignity. He repeatedly re 
volted against the Pope ; and, in 1527, cooperated with the Imperial- 
ists. Still, when Pope Clement the Seventh was a prisoner of the 
Emperor, he zealously strove to obtain that Pontiff" 's liberty, who, 
in gratitude, restored him to the cardinalship, of which he had been 
deprived. 



262^ GREAT EVENTS. 

upon these doomed Romans, whom they had overwhelm- 
ed. He was of a generous and compassionate nature, 
and instantly opened his house to the unfortunate inhabi- 
tants. He possessed much influence over the officers 
and soldiers of the army ; he made use of it, to protect 
the honor of the women, to prevent the repeated vexa- 
tions to which the citizens had been exposed, and to low- 
er the ransoms exacted from the prisoners. He actually 
performed these services, with so much good will, zeal, 
and humanity, that, within a short time, all the rooms of 
his palace, from the cellar to the roof, were filled witli 
poor women and noble ladies, snatched from the hands 
of the soldiers, to whom their ransom had been paid, 
either by themselves or by him. The Cardinal likewise 
gave an asylum to the other cardinals, who, after having 
been abused and ill-treated by the soldiery, owed their 
safety and delivery to him. He smoothed the difficulties 
between the soldiers and the prisoners, by exhausting his 
own purse ; and he hastened to the assistance of all those, 
whose life he understood to be in danger. It may even 
be said, that no unfortunate man implored his assistance 
in vain. He forgot hatred and resentment, and assisted 
individuals, formerly his enemies, from whom he had been 
estranged, on account of political differences, or for more 
weighty reasons. A lady and her daughter, of the noble 
family of Santa Croce, owed to him their ransom from 
the grasp of the enemy. It was only in one instance 
that Pompey Colonna could not resist his feeling of re- 
venge, — when he gave orders to burn the vineyard of the 
Pope, at the foot of Mount Marius, near Ponte-Molle. 
Clement the Seventh, espying the fire, from the top of the 
castle, turned round to the Cardinals, and said : " Pom- 
pey is paying me a debt. I have caused his castles in the 
champagne of Rome to be burnt ; he is now trying to re- 
pay me." This sight gave the Pope much pain, it is true ; 
nevertheless, he did not throw the blame upon the Car- 
dinal.* 

* Historical criticism must ascertain, if it can be done, whether 
there is much truth in these remarks, or whether James Bonaparte, 
perhaps unconsciously, made the most of a few instances of aid af- 



THE SACK OF ROME. 263 

The life which the Pontiff led, in the fort St. Angelo, 
was at all times exceedingly painful. But it became still 
more so, when he saw the provisions, of which, never- 
theless, only the most necessary portion was daily con- 
sumed, fast approaching their end. In spite of their re 
pugnance, he and the cardinals were obhged to eat asses' 
flesh. In this impossibility of holding out any longer, on 
account of want of food, he proposed to surrender, on the 
following conditions : 

He was willing to subscribe, in anticipation, to the de- 
sires of the Emperor, which he felt pleasure in supposing 
to be benevolent, equitable, and worthy of a son of the 
Church : he would discharge the arrears of pay to the 
Imperial soldiers, for which, liberty and his dominions 
should be restored to him. He immediately caused the 
sacred vessels of gold and silver, which he had succeed- 
ed in carrying along with him, to be melted down, and 
money to be coined from the metal. In this way, he 
realized three hundred thousand dollars, which were, how- 
ever, insufficient to satisfy the superior officers, and still 
less the whole body of soldiers. 

The situation of the Pontiff, closely besieged in his 
fort, became, as we have seen, more and more critical. 
To fill the measure of evil, the pestilence broke out among 
his people. Pompey, urged by some cardinals who were 
friendly toward him, resolved on paying a visit to the 
Pope. His Holiness said to the cardinals, near him, 
that he hoped no longer for any relief, from without ; that 
there was no hope, except in the lance of Achilles. He 
thus designated Cardinal Colonna, who, having brought 
all this misery upon the city, was more able than any 
one else, to find the proper means to avert its further 

forded by Cardinal Colonna. For Bonaparte wrote, perhaps, when 
the Cardinal was already reconciled to the Pope, or was on the point 
of being so ; and the pen of one of the household officers of a pope 
may easily have been guided, in some degree, by the respect due from 
him to a person so eminent in the Church, and so powerful, from hia 
connexion with one of the proudest and most elevated of the baronial 
families. Nevertheless, the freedom with which he writes, respect- 
ing other subjects, in subsequent passages, inclines us to give cre- 
dence ta these remarks 



264 GREAT EVENTS. 

duration. When Colonna arrived at the castle, the Holy 
Father received him extremely well ; probably also with- 
out covert thoughts. Both began to weep at the disas- 
ters which were devastating their country, at the disgrace 
into which the sacerdotal dignity had fallen, and, above 
all, at their own respective folly, which, filling their souls 
with a fury, unworthy of persons clothed with a sacred 
character, had attracted the foreign enemy to the heart 
of their country, and ended with breaking down the es- 
tablishment consecrated to God. They agreed upon 
the means by which Clement the Seventh should be re- 
stored to liberty. Pompey having promised to use his 
influence with the ministers of the Emperor, in order to 
obtain the Pope's delivery, received the Papal benedic- 
tion, and departed. 

The Pope, nevertheless, did not neglect other means, 
by which he might better his situation. He sent a legate 
to King Francis the First,* and another to Henry, King 
of England. The King of France, it was said, was 
about sending Lautrec,f a gallant captain, at the head of 
a goodly army, in order to revenge the insults which had 
been heaped upon the chief of the Church. Clement, 
moreover, sent letters and negotiators to the Emperor. 
But the soldiers, and especially the Germans, showed an 
inflexible obduracy ; they would not listen to any arrange- 
ment, unless, before all, their arrears were duly paid. 
The Emperor found this demand perfectly reasonable. 
He charged his envoy. Brother Angioli, to communicate 
his intentions to the chiefs of the army. The Pope 
should reenter into the plenitude of his rights ; the holi- 
ness of his dignity demanded respect ; but he should 
provide for the means of satisfying the Imperial troops ; 
and they should not retire, without proper hostages. By 
means of this precaution, the Pope would find himself 
incapable to do much harm to the Emperor, should he be 
disposed to resent the injuries received at the hands of 
this Prince. 

* King of France. 

t Lautrec, or Lutrcc, was one of the most distinguished captains 
of this age, commanding the troops of the League. 



THE SACK OF ROME. 265 

When Clement was informed of these conditions, they 
seemed to him excessively hard. He was at the mercy 
of the foreigners, and thus it was impossible for him to 
collect as much money as was demanded of him. What 
credit with the soldiers or merchants could he, imprisoned 
as he was, count upon ? In his present situation, he 
could inspire no confidence, because the promises which 
he would make, in order to be freed from it, would 
be without guarantee. The validity of the obligations 
and of the pledges, consented to in prison, might be 
nnpugned and destroyed by the fact, that these acts had 
been stipulated, not by a free agent, but by a person in a 
state of coercion. The Germans, in particular, obsti- 
nately refused to accept of the notes of bankers. Not 
content with so much booty, amassed in the city which 
they had sacked, they threatened to put the whole gar- 
rison of the castle to the sword, and to commence with 
the Pope and cardinals, if the sums demanded were not 
instantly paid down. 

There was no means left of evading the difficulty. The 
Pope was obliged to give sureties for the acquittance of 
die contribution of war, and to hand over to the Germans 
his fo\jr most beloved and most devoted friends, the two 
Bishops of Pistoja and Verona, and the two Archbish- 
ops of Siponte and Pisa. To these hostages, he added 
two of his near relations, James Salviati and Lawrence 
Ridolfi, renowned for their opulence and high nobility. 
When the Germans had these six personages in their pow- 
er, they made them instantly feel the effects of their cupid- 
ity. They threatened and terrified the hostages, in all 
sorts of ways, in order to obtain the gold which was de- 
manded ; yet, with whatever zeal the captives proceeded, 
and however anxious the Pope and the bankers were to ac- 
quit themselves, they were unable to succeed in reahzing 
the sum agreed upon. The enraged soldiers now put 
their hostages in chains, like vile criminals, and caused 
them to be led to the Campo di Fiori,* where they 
placed them under gibbets., and had piquets ready to ex- 

* Flower market. 
23 G. E 



266 GREAT EVENTS. 

ecute them. Had the people or the other soldiers made 
the slightest stir in their favor, they would have been 
lost : their fate was decided. Three times they were 
conducted, pale and trembhng, to the very spot of exe- 
cution ; three times were they saved by their prayers, 
tears, and, above all, by promises to acquit themselves, 
if but a short delay were granted them. They obtained 
the reprieve demanded ; it was a triumph over cruelty, 
gained by cupidity, all the hopes of which would have 
been destroyed by their death. 

The captives went about, knocking at every door, in 
order to collect the necessary sum, while their friends 
made sure of their safety, by other means. Their guards 
were corrupted, by an excellent repast, and plied with 
wines drugged with opium. These soldiers, occupied 
only with doing honor to the wine and the savory dain- 
ties, soon fell into a profound sleep, which the discharge 
of artillery could not have interrupted. This was the 
moment waited for by the friends of the hostages. So 
soon as they observed that the wines had done their work, 
they entered the rooms where the hostages were in chains. 
They loosed their fetters, and, by means of cords, made 
them ascend through the chimney, upon the roof, from 
which, with proper assistance, the fugitives arrived, in the 
greatest secrecy, at the gates of Rome, whence they 
passed, without harm, to the camp of the Duke of Ur- 
bino, at this time stationed in Umbria. In this manner, 
they saved, at once, their fortunes and their lives. Their 
unexpected and surprising flight hastened the delivery of 
the Pope. His situation, however, was not immediately 
bettered. The German soldiers insisted only with the 
more urgency upon the necessity of paying them off, as 
the condition of his enlargement. He tried, therefore, 
every possible means of getting money, but none showed 
any hope of success, except only one, and that was, to 
sell some cardinals' hats to the highest bidder. There 
were, among the partisans of the Emperor, some who 
aspired to this dignity, and who paid the money down. 
By this means, the Pope succeeded, at length, in obtain- 
nig the requisite sum. Surely, this expedient was neith- 



THE SACK OF ROME. 261 

er honest nor delicate ; but, in this cruel difficulty, h^ 
was at a loss what else to do, in order to calm the impa 
tience and cupidity of the soldiers. 

The corruption of the corpses, abandoned, without 
burial, in the public squares, the infectious odor of th^ 
sewers, the incessant changes of temperature, and thp 
want of suitable nourishment, had engendered the pesti- 
lence, which we have already mentioned. This malady 
had carried off a great many soldiers, among whom wer? 
observed several of those who had most contributed t^ 
the devastation of the convents. 

As soon as the soldiers had been paid, news was re 
ceived of the advantages gained by Lautrec, general of 
the French army. The German and .Spanish troops, 
whose ranks were found much thinned, by death, showed 
now much more inclination to peace, and allowed them- 
selves to be persuaded by their chiefs to return under 
their authority, and to follow them, wherever the service 
of the Emperor should require. 

The Pope, desirous of proving his good disposition 
respecting the army, and the attachment which he had 
always retained for the Emperor, engaged himself to 
place in their power, five cardinals of their own selec- 
tion, as hostages. They chose three, of Venice, Milan^ 
and Florence, whose relations were attached to the op- 
posite party ; Cardinal Pompey selected two of Rome. 
He carried them to one of his country residences, where 
he treated them with the greatest respect and perfect 
courtesy. He made earnest endeavors to keep the 
pledge which he had given to the Holy Father to strive 
to regulate the conventions with the agents of the Emper- 
or, relative to the total evacuation of the territory of 
Rome. The Pope had completely succeeded in draw- 
ing him into his own interests, by means of brilliant 
promises. Pompey used his whole influence with the 
Imperial ministers, to induce them not to exact the rigor- 
ous conditions, dictated by the Emperor, to their whole 
extent. They did not immediately yield ; nevertheless, 
they at last complied. This negotiation was conducted 
with much ability by the Cardinal, because Don Hugh, 



268 GREAT EVENTS. 

a man without faith and of sinister views, had retired to 
Naples with his troops, and the Prince of Orange had 
quartered his, in the barracks. 

Clement was enlarged, after a siege of seven months, 
as soon as the peace was concluded. He had announced 
his resolution to leave the castle St. Angelo within three 
days ; yet he succeeded in escaping, during the night, 
without the knowledge of the sentinels. He took the 
precaution of covering his head with a slouched hat, of 
putting on a common dress, and disguising his face with a 
long beard. Thus disguised, he passed as one of the 
servants belonging to the department of the grand-master 
of the Papal household. He carried a basket under his 
arm, and a dorsal and some empty sacks on his back. 
To the inquiries of the sentinels he answered, that he was 
sent in advance, to prepare lodgings on the route, which 
the Pope was to take, in travelling with the cardinals to 
Viterbo, and that he was to procure provisions for them. 
Thus he succeeded in leaving the castle, and escaping 
out of Rome, through a secret gate, made in the corner 
of the wall which encloses the garden of St. Peter, and 
the keys of which he had obtained, the evening before, 
from the chief gardener. Here, he stepped into a car- 
riage kept ready for him, by Lewis de Gonzagua, before 
mentioned, whose younger brother the Pope had made 
cardinal. Accompanied by a single peasant, he passed, 
by night, through Celano, and the forest of Boccano, 
took some refreshment at Capranica, and arrived, by 
a road cut through the rocks, at Orvieto, a fortified 
place. 

The next morning, some colonels went to the castle, 
to pay their court to the Pope. They knew that he 
heard mass, every morning, in the chapel, and therefore 
waited some time for him. Part of the day had already 
elapsed, yet he did not make his appearance. They 
then inquired of the body-servants, whether His Holiness 
did not mean to rise ; that the day was far advanced, and 
that, for the journey he meant to undertake, it would be 
convenient to start in time, because the road was bad 
and the Winter days very short. The lackeys knew 



THE SACK OF ROME. 26? 

nothing. However, this long delay began to appeal 
somewhat suspicious to the colonels ; and, at length, 
they learned that the Pope had deceived them. Indeed, 
in these disastrous events, he had become acquainted 
with their character, and had come to the conclusion, 
that it was best to trust them as httle as possible. The 
Pope, arriving at Orvieto, at the moment when he was 
least expected, was perfectly well received by the inhab- 
itants, and received visits from a multitude of distinguish- 
ed persons, who went to congratulate him upon the re- 
covery of his liberty. He remained here, until he had 
concluded the peace with his majesty the Emperor, 
Charles the Fifth. 

Such was the end of the sack, which the unhappy city 
of Rome had to sustain. After the departure of the 
Pope, the officers and soldiers, laden with booty, took 
the road for Naples, whither they were sent by diverse 
routes, in order to arrest the rapid progress daily making 
by Lautrec, general of the King of France. 

23* 



270 GREAT EVENTS. 



HENRY VIIL, KING OF ENGLAND, AND CATH- 
ARINE OF ARRAGON, HIS QUEEN, BEFORE 
THE LEGATINE COURT, CONSISTING OF CAR- 
DINALS WOLSEY AND CAMFEGGIO, IN 1527. 

BY GEORGE CAVENDISH. 

George Cavendish was gentleman usher* to Cardinal 
Wolsey. He was a faithful attendant to this princely pre- 
late, not only in the days of triumphant fortune, but also 
in his master's banishment and adversity, until the hour 
when he performed for his once powerful patron the last 
sad offices of humanity. After that, he sat down, in his 
retirement, to write a faithful picture, as he, no doubt, be- 
lieved it was, of the man who so long wielded, in the name 
of Henry VIIL, the highest power over England. Cav- 
endish seems to have written his life of Wolsey, with 
great regard to truth, frequently stating facts, whicTi 
leave upon the reader an impression, very different from 
the spirit in which the author gives them. Among these 
latter, I count the relation of the closing scenes of Wol- 
sey 's life. This, Cavendish plainly gives, as an evidence 
of the meekness of that fallen man ; but it can hardly fail 
to leave upon our minds, at this distance of time, and dis- 
connected, as we now are, from all personal interest, a 
different, and a most painful impression. For we see a 
man, highly endowed by Nature, utterly wretched and 
despairing, because he had lost one solitary thing, in 
vvhich he had bound up his whole existence, and which 
.vas the very breath of his life, — the sunshine of royal 
,avor. Without fortitude, without the dignity and con- 
aciousness of worth, we see him, like a drowning man, 
vvhom a buoyant wave lifts once more above his destined 
grave, catching at every straw which the fatal element 
chances to carry near him, or which his eager fancy ima- 
gines to be floating before his eyes. We cannot withhold 
our commiseration from the victim of a monarch like 
Henry ; and this, the rather, perhaps, that we see him 
still more the victim of his own unhappy error. He has 

* An officer who has the care of a court, hall, chamber, or the like, 
and introduces visiters. 



HENRY VIII. OF ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 271 

plac€d his whole dependence upon something, over which 
he has no final control, and which has now failed him, not 
upon that, which is within him, and of which he cannot be 
robbed, even by the mightiest. Shakspeare, in his Henry 
VIII., does not allow the Cardinal to sink so low. And 
he is right ; for it is the duty of the poet, to restore the 
hearer's mind to a calmness, though tinged with melan- 
choly, yet superior to the thrilling pains and anxious in- 
terest, which may have been excited in the course of the 
play. This necessary object of poetry would not, it 
seems, have been attained, had Shakspeare allowed the 
proud prelate not only to fall from his towering height, 
but to sink within himself, so v/retchedly low, stripped of all 
dignity of mind, a writhing insect, in which we see noth- 
ing but unalleviated pain. On the other hand, it is well 
known, that this greatest of poets has, in that drama, em- 
bodied, almost literally, several passages contained in 
Cavendish's Life of Wolsey. This composition was first 
printed in 1641. A corrected edition, from an autograph 
manuscript, was published in 1825, under the title, — 'The 
Life of Cardinal Wolsey, by George Cavendish, his Gen- 
tleman Usher. And Metrical Visions, from the original 
autograph Manuscript, &c. By Samuel Weller Singer.' 
From this edition, pages 144 to 166, the subjoined extract 
is taken. 

Henry VIII., born in the year 1491, succeeded his fa- 
ther, in 1509. A few months after, he married Catharine, 
daughter of Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of Cas- 
tile. Catharine was the widow of Prince Arthur, the 
elder brother of Henry. Pope Julius II. had granted a 
dispensation,* for the marriage of Henry with his brother's 
widow, which dispensation had been in England six years, 
before it was used. Henry VIII. was a tyrant of the 
worst kind. There are two classes of tyrants ; — some, 
filled, indeed, with, and not hesitating to demand any sa- 
crifice to, a grasping ambition, do still, in their own hearts, 
acknowledge the idea of the State, as the sovereign idea 
of their lives. They consider themselves, it is true, as 
having so close a personal connexion with the State, that 
they are ready to demand any sacrifice to themselves, as 
a sacrifice to the State ; but they are likewise ready to 

* Or exemption from the law of the Church, which prohibited a 
man from marrying the widow of his brother. 



272 GREAT EVENTS. 

make personal sacrifices, to this, their highest idea, — the 
glorj and the power of the State. There are other ty- 
rants, of a coarse stamp, who cannot elevate themselves 
so high ; their minds are circumscribed and wrapped up 
in gross and narrow selfishness. To this class, unfortu- 
nately, Henry belonged. His ideas of power in the King, 
of obedience in the subject, of government of State, — 
every thing, in short, was gross. In religion, he did not 
elevate himself above scholastic questions of theology ; 
nor in morals, above casuistical formalities. In foreign 
policy, he did not penetrate, through pomp and ceremonial, 
to the essence ; in domestic politics, the increase of his 
own wealth, and the mere acquisition of power, formed 
the ends of government. Nowhere do we see him, with 
judgement and perseverance, plan, develope, sow, and 
cultivate ; every where, we find him hastily breaking down 
and destroying. Such a monarch, sufficiently selfish to 
trample down any thing that might be in his way, and so 
coarse, as to regard only the persons of his opponents, and 
to be content with removing them by the axe, without aim- 
ing to overcome the principle of opposition, was, from this 
very grossness, utterly unable to prescribe a lofty and 
firm course for himself, after he had broken down all the 
barriers, which had opposed, or torn the ties which had 
restrained, him. We can perceive, in Henry, none of that 
strength of character and distinctness of purpose, which 
was so prominent in his illustrious daughter, Elizabeth \ — 
but only the vehemence of coarse passion. A man of 
this unhappy constitution, at a time when the Reformation 
necessarily loosened so many ties, — a time which was 

" Sad, high, and working, full of state and wo,'* 

could not but do incalculable mischief to his country, and 
infinite injury to the cause, which, with the wavering ca- 
price of an arrogant mind, he half opposed, half supported. 
Henry, having now lived, for eighteen years, in perfect 
harmony with Queen Catharine, a pious, gentle, and ex- 
cellent lady, pretended to feel compunction of conscience, 
on account of his marriage with his brother's widow ; a 
connexion prohibited by the law of Moses. The reader 
must consult the history of England, for the details of this 
affair ; suffice it here to say, that any real compunction, 
on the part of Henry, is rendered incredible, by the fact, 
that he made no serious manifestation of it, before he was 



HENRY VIII. OF ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 273 

in love with Anne Boleyn, a lady attached to Catharine's 
court ; by his hasty marriage with her, immediately after 
the divorce had been pronounced ; and by his subsequent 
behavior toward his wives. Henry was one of those men, 
whose selfishness will not suffer their desires to be thwart- 
ed, but who have not sufficient strength of mind to break, 
at once, through all forms, and who endeavor to appease 
their own conscience by continuing the observance of 
forms, as long as possible. He was anxious that the Pope 
should pronounce his marriage null and void, as inconsist- 
ent with the law of God. After repeated importunate pe- 
titions to this effect, the Pope agreed to send to England 
a cardinal, who, together with Cardinal Wolsey, should 
form a legatine court, before which, the validity of 
Henry's marriage might be tried. Henry, in whom sel- 
fishness, and that, too, of a most unrefined character, form- 
ed so prominent a trait, could never raise himself to the 
feelings of a gentleman ; and he, who adored the idol of 
his own power, nevertheless, allowed himself and his wife 
to be cited to appear in court, in his own kingdom. Should 
the court pronounce that judgement, which he so ardently 
desired, he would not only publicly thrust a faithful and 
virtuous companion from him, and offend her nephew, the 
Emperor Charles V., but would declare his own daughter 
the issue of an illegitimate union. In this respect, the 
trial was, in the highest degree, scandalous. In regard to 
Henry, who evidently had made up his mind, it was a 
farce. But we must consider it, also, with reference to 
Catharine. The daughter of two renowned monarchs, a 
pious and innocent woman, alone, in a country which had 
not given her birth, she is dragged into open court, where 
her king and husband, aided by obsequious courtiers, 
makes wicked mockery of conscience and religion. She 
is a mother, a royal mother, whose offspring is to be de- 
clared illegitimate ; a wife, about to be repudiated by the 
husband whom she had faithfully loved and obeyed ; a 
Queen, from whose innocent head a crown is to be pluck- 
ed, to be placed upon other and younger brows. She is 
a woman, of an age which does not, of itself, usually in- 
spire a tender interest, yet young enough, to feel all the 
pangs, caused by the prospect of a long, dishonored life ; 
a devout and confiding Christian, who sees the most sa- 
cred forms of religion shamelessly turned against her. 
When we consider the trial in these respects, it forms a 
tragedy of the saddest interest. 



274 GREAT EVENTS. 



Long was the desire, and greater was the hope, on 
all sides, expecting the coming of the legation and com- 
mission from Rome ; yet, at length, it came. And 
after the arrival of the Legate Campeggio, with this sol- 
emn commission, in England, he, being sore vexed with 
the gout, was constrained, by force thereof, to make a 
long journey, before he came to London. He should 
have been most solemnly received at Blackheath, and so 
with great triumph conveyed to London ; but his glory 
was such, that he would in nowise be entertained with 
any such pomp or vain glory ; and he suddenly came, 
by water, in a wherry, to his own house, without Temple 
Bar, (called, then, Bath Place,) which was furnished 
for him with all manner of stuff and implements, of my 
lord's provision,* where he continued and lodged, during 
his abode here in England. 

Then, after some deliberation, his commission under- 
stood, read, and perceived, it was by the council deter- 
mined, that the King, and the Queen his wife, should be 
lodged at Bridewell. And that in the Black Friars, a 
certain place should be appointed, where the King and 
the Queen might most conveniently repair to the court, 
there to be erected and kept for the disputation and de- 
termination of the King's case, where these two legates 
sat in judgement, as notable judges ; before whom the 
King and the Queen were duly cited and summoned to 
appear. Which was the strangest and newest sight and 
device that ever was read or heard, in any history or 
chronicle, in any region ; that a King and a Queen 
[should] be conventedf and constrained, by process com- 
pellatoryj to appear in any court, as common persons, 
within their own realm or dominion, to abide the judge- 
ment and decrees of their own subjects, having the royal 
diadem and prerogative thereof. 

Ye shall understand, as I said before, that there was a 
court erected in the Black Friars, in London, where these 

* That is, of Cardinal Wolsey's. 

t Convented, — called before a j^dge, or court of law. 

t Compellatory , — having the force of compelling, compulsatory. 



HENRY VIII. OF ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 275 

two cardinals sat for judges. Now will I set you out the 
manner and order of the court, there. Fh'st, there was 
a court placed with tables, benches, and bars, Hke a con- 
sistory, a place judicial, (for the judges to sit on.) 
There was also a cloth of estate, under the which sat 
the King ; and the Queen sat, some distance beneath the 
King. Under the judges' feet, sat the officers of the 
court. The chief scribe, there, was Dr. Stephens,* 
(who was, after, Bishop of Winchester ;) the apparitorf 
was one Cooke, most commonly called Cooke of Win- 
chester. Then set, there, within the said court, directly 
before the King and the judges, the Archbishop of Can 
terbury. Doctor Warham, and all the other bishops. 
Then, at both the ends, with a bar made for them, the 
counsellors on both sides. The doctors for the King 
were Doctor Sampson, that was, after. Bishop of Chi- 
chester, and Doctor Bell, who after was Bishop of 
Worcester, with divers other. The proctors on the 
King's part were Doctor Peter, who was after made 
the King's chief secretary, and Doctor Tregonell, and 
divers other. 

Now, on the other side, stood the counsel for the 
Queen, Doctor Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Doc- 
tor Standish, sometime a Gray Friar, and then Bishop 
of St. Asaph, in Wales, two notable clerks in divinity, 
and, in especial, the Bishop of Rochester, a very godly 
man, and a devout person, who after suffered death at 
Tower Hill ; the which was greatly lamented through all 
the foreign Universities of Christendom. There was 
also another ancient doctor, called, as I remember. 
Doctor Ridley, a very small person in stature, but surely 
a great and excellent clerk in divinity. 

The court being thus furnished and ordered, the judges 
commanded the crier to proclaim silence. Then was 
the judges' commission, which they had of the Pope, 
published, and read, openly, before the audience there 
assembled. That done, the crier called the King by 
the name of " King Henry of England ! come into the 

* Dr. Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. 

t The lowest officer of an ecclesiastical court, a ^ummoner, 



276 GREAT EVENTS. 

court," &c. With that, the King answered and said, 
" Here, my lords !" Then he called also the Queen, 
by the name of " Catharine, Queen of England, come 
into the court," &c., who made no answer to the same, 
but rose up incontinent* out of her chair, where she sat ; 
and, because she could not come directly to the King, 
for the distance which severed them, she took pains to 
go about unto the King, kneehng down at his feet, in the 
sight of all the court and assembly, to whom she said, 
in effect, in broken English, as followeth :f 

" Sir," quoth she, ''I beseech you, for all the love 
that hath been between us, and for the love of God, let 
me have justice and right ; take of me some pity, and 
compassion, for I am a poor woman and a stranger, born 
out of your dominion. I have, here, no assured friend, 
and much less indifferent counsel. I flee to you, as to 
the head of justice within this realm. Alas ! Sir, 
wherein have I offended you, or what occasion of dis- 
pleasure [have I given you ?] Have I designed against 
your will and pleasure ; intending (as I perceive) to put 
me from you ? I take God, and all the world, to wit- 
ness, that I have been to you a true, humble, and obe- 
dient wife, ever conformable to your will and pleasure, 
that never said nor did any thing to the contrary thereof, 
being always well pleased and contented with all things 
wherein you had any delight or dalliance ; whether it 
were in little or much, I never grudged, in word or coun- 
tenance, or showed a visage or spark of discontent. I 
loved all those whom ye loved, only for your sake, 
whether I had cause or no ; and whether they were my 
friends or my enemies. This twenty years, or more, 1 
have been your true wife, and by me ye have had divers 
children, although it hath pleased God to call them out 
of this world, which hath been no default in me. 

" And when ye had me, at the first, I take God to be 

* Immediately. 

t Some have denied the fact, that the King and Queen were present 
at the trial; for instance, Bishop Burnet, in his History of the Reforma- 
tion, Vol. III. pp. 46-48 ; but it seems to be now well established, by 
several concurrent proofs, that those high personages did actually ap- 
pear. 



HENRY VIII. OP ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 277 

my judge, I was a true maid ; and, whether it be true or 
no, I put it to your conscience. If there be any just 
cause, by the law, that ye can allege against me, either 
of dishonesty, or any odier impediment, to banish and put 
me away from you, I am well content to depart, to my 
great shame and dishonor ; and, if there be none, then 
here I most lowly beseech you, let me remain in my for- 
mer estate, and receive justice at your hands. The King, 
your father, was, in the time of his reign, of such estima- 
tion, throughout the world, for his excellent wisdom, that 
he was accounted and called, of all men, the second Sol- 
omon ; and my father, Ferdinand, King of Spain, who 
was esteemed to be one of the wittiest princes that reign- 
ed in Spain, many years before, were both wise and ex- 
cellent kings in wisdom and princely behavior. It is not, 
therefore, to be doubted, but that they elected and gath- 
ered as wise counsellors about them, as to their high dis- 
cretions was thought meet. Also, as me seemeth, there 
was, in those days, as wise, as well learned, men, and 
men of as good judgement, as be, at this present, in both 
realms, who thought, then, the marriage between you and 
me good and lawful. Therefore, it is a wonder to hear 
what new inventions are now invented against me, (that 
never intended but honesty,) and cause me to stand to the 
order and judgement of this new court, wherein ye may 
do me much wrong, if ye intend any cruelty ; for ye may 
condemn me for lack of sufficient answer, having no in- 
different counsel but such as be assigned me, with whose 
wisdom and learning I am not acquainted. Ye must con- 
sider, that they cannot be indifferent counsellors for my 
part, which be your subjects, and taken out of your own 
council, before, wherein they be made privy, and dare 
not, for your displeasure, disobey your will and intent, 
being once made privy thereto. Therefore, I most hum- 
bly require you, in the way of charity, and for the love of 
God, who is the just Judge, to spare me the extremity 
of this new court, until I may be advertised what way and 
order my friends in vSpain will advise me to take. And 
if ye will not extend to me so much indifferent favor, your 
pleasure then be fulfilled, and to God I conmiit my cause !" 

24 G. E. 



278 GREAT EVENTS. 

And with that, she rose up, making a low courtesy to 
the King, and so departed thence. [Many] supposed 
that she would have* resorted again to her former place ; 
but she took her way straight out of the house, leaning 
(as she was wont always to do) upon the arm of her Gen- 
eral Receiver, called Master Griffith. And the King, 
being advertised of her departure, commanded the crier 
to call her again, who called her by the name of '' Cath- 
erine, Queen of England, come into court," &c. With 
that, quoth Master Griffith, '' Madam, ye be called 
again.'''' ''On, on," quoth she, "it maketh no matter, 
for it is no indifferent court for me ; therefore, I will not 
tarry. Go on your ways." And thus she departed out 
of that court, without any further answer at that time, or at 
any other, nor would ever appear at any other court, after. 

The King, perceiving that she was departed in such 
sort, calling to his Grace's memory all her lamentable 
words, that she had pronounced before him and all the 
audience, said thus, in effect : "Forasmuch as the Queen 
is gone, I will, in her absence, declare unto you all, my 
lords, here presently assembled, she hath been to me as 
true, as obedient, and as comfortable, a wife, as I could, 
in my fantasy, wish or desire. She hath all the virtuous 
qualities that ought to be in a woman of her dignity, or in 
any other, of baser estate. Surely, she is also a noble wo- 
man born, if nothing were in her, but only her condition's, 
[they] will well declare the same." With that, quoth my 
Lord Cardinal, " Sir, I most humbly beseech your high- 
ness to declare me before all this audience, whether I have 
been the chief inventor or first mover of this matter unto 
your majesty ; for I am greatly suspected of all men here- 
in." "My Lord Cardinal," quoth the King, "lean 
well excuse you herein. Marry, ye have been rather 
against me, in attempting or setting forth thereof. And 
to put you all out of doubt, I will declare unto you the 
special cause that moved me hereunto ; it was a certain 
scrupulosity that pricked my conscience, upon divers words 
that were spoken,* at a certain time, by the Bishop of Bay- 

* Nothing of this kind is to be found in the Journal of this embassy, 
nor in the letters of the Bishop and his companions, which have been 



HENRY VIII. OF ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 279 

onne, the French King's Ambassador, who had been 
here long upon the debating, for the conclusion of a mar- 
riage to be concluded between the princess, our daughter 
Mary, and the Duke of Orleans, the French King's sec- 
ond son. 

" And upon the resolution and determination thereof, 
he desired respite, to advertise the King his master there- 
of, whether our daughter Mary should be legitimate, in 
respect of the marriage which was sometime between the 
Queen here, and my brother, the late Prince Arthur. 
These words were so conceived within my scrupulous 
conscience, that it bred a doubt within my breast, which 
doubt pricked, vexed, and troubled so my mind, and so 
disquieted me, that I was in great doubt of God's indig- 
nation ; which (as seemed me) appeared right well ; much 
the rather, for that he hath not sent me any issue male ; 
for all such issue male as I have received of the Queen, 
died incontinent* after they were born ; so that I doubt 
the punishment of God in that behalf. Thus, being trou- 
bled in waves of a scrupulous conscience, and partly in 
despair of any issue male by her, it drave me, at last, to 
consider the estate of this realm, and the danger it stood 
in, for lack of issue male to succeed me in this imperial 
dignity. I thought it good, therefore, in relief of the 
weighty burden of scrupulous conscience, and the quiet 
estate of this noble realm, to attempt the law therein, and 
whether I might take any wife, in case that my first mar- 
riage with this gentlewoman were not lawful ; which I in- 
tend not for any displeasure or mislike of the Queen's 
person or age, with whom I could be as well content to 
continue, during my life, if our marriage may stand with 
God's laws, as with any woman alive ; in which point, 
consisteth all this doubt, that we go now about to try, by 
the learned wisdom and judgement of you, our prelates 
and pastors of this realm, here assembled for that purpose ; 
to whose conscience and judgement, I have committed 

preserved, and many of which have been published by Le Grand, 
Histoire du Divorce de Henri VIII. — JVote of the English Editor, 

* Immediately. 



280 GREAT EVENTS. 

the charge, according to the which, (God willing,) we will 
be right well contented to submit ourself, to obey the same, 
for our part. Wherein, after I once perceived my con- 
science wounded with the doubtful case herein, I moved, 
first, this matter in confession to you, my Lord of Lin- 
coln,* my ghostly father. And, forasmuch as then your- 
self were in some doubt to give me counsel, moved me 
to ask further counsel of all you, my lords ; wherein I 
moved you, first, my Lord of Canterbury, asking your 
license, (forasmuch as you were our Metropolitan,) to put 
this matter in question ; and so I did of all you, my lords, 
to the which ye have all granted, by writing, under all your 
seals, the which I have here to be showed." " That is 
truth, if it please your highness," quoth the Archbishop 
of Canterbury ; '' I doubt not, but all my brethren, here 
present, will afiirm the same." '' No, Sire, not I," quoth 
the Bishop of Rochester; " ye have not my consent there- 
to." " No .''" quoth the King, " look here, upon this, is 
not this your hand and seal .^" and showed him the in- 
strument with seals. " No, forsooth. Sire," quoth the 
Bishop of Rochester, "it is not my hand nor seal !" To 
that, quoth the King to my Lord of Canterbury, " Sir, 
how say ye, is it not his hand and seal .?" " Yes, Sire," 
quoth my Lord of Canterbury. " That is not so," quoth 
the Bishop of Rochester, "for indeed you were in hand 
with me, to have both my hand and seal, as other of my 
lords had already done ; but then I said to you, that I 
would never consent to no such act, for it were much 
against my conscience ; nor my hand and seal should 
never be seen at any such instrument, God willing, with 
much more matter, touching the same communication, be- 
tween us." " You say truth," quoth the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, " such words ye said unto me ; but, at the 
last, ye were fully persuaded, that I should for you sub- 
scribe your name, and put a seal myself, and ye would 
allow the same." " All which words and matter," quoth 
the Bishop of Rochester, " under your correction, my 
lord, and supportationf of this noble audience, there is 

* Wolaey was Bishop of Lincoln. 

t Support. 



HENRY VIII. OP ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 281 

no thing more untrue." " Well, well," quoth the King, 
" it shall make no matter, we will not stand with you in 
argument herein, for you are but one man." And with 
that, the court was adjourned until the next day of this 
session. 

The next court day, the cardinals sat there, again, at 
which time, the counsel, on both sides, were there pres- 
ent. The King's counsel alleged the marriage not good, 
from the beginning, because of the marriage between 
Prince Arthur, her first husband, the King's brother, and 
her. This matter being very sore touched and maintained 
by the King's counsel ; and the contrary defended by 
such as took upon them to be on that other part, with the 
good Queen. It was answered again, negatively, on the 
other side, by which it seemed, that all their former alle- 
gations [were] very doubtful to be tried, so that it was said, 
that no man could know the truth. " Yes," quoth the 
Bishop of Rochester, " Ego nosco veritatem ;" [I know 
the truth.] " How know you the truth r" quoth my Lord 
Cardinal. " Forsooth, my lord," quoth he, " Ego sum 
professor veritatis ; [I am a professor of the truth.] I 
know that God is truth itself, nor He never spake but 
truth ; who saith, ' quos Deus conjunxit, homo non sepa- 
ret ;^ [whom God hath joined, let no man put asunder.] 
And forasmuch as this marriage was made and joined by 
God, to a good intent, I say, that I know the truth ; the 
which cannot be broken or loosed by the power of man, 
upon no feigned occasion." " So much, doth all faithful 
men know," quoth my Lord Cardinal, " as well as you. 
Yet this reason is not sufficient in this case ; for the King's 
counsel doth allege divers presumptions, to prove the 
marriage not good at the beginning, ergo, [consequently,] 
say they, it was not joined by God, at the beginning, and 
therefore, it is not lawful ; for God ordaineth nor joineth 
nothing without a just order. Therefore, it is not to be 
doubted, but that these presumptions must be true, as it 
plainly appeareth ; and nothing can be more true, in case 
these allegations cannot be avoided ; therefore, to say that 
the matrimony was joined of God, ye must prove it, fur- 
ther than by that text which ye have alleged for your mat- 
24^ 



282 GREAT EVENTS. 

ter; for ye must first avoid the presumptions." " Then," 
quoth Dr. Ridley, "it is a shame, and a great dishonor 
to this honorable presence, that any such presumptions 
should be alleged, in this open court, which be, to all 
good and honest men, most detestable to be rehearsed." 
" What !" quoth my Lord Cardinal, "" D online Doctor, 
magis reverenter f [more reverently, Master Doctor.] 
" No, no, my Lord," quoth he, "there belongeth no rever- 
ence to be given to these abominable presumptions ; for an 
unreverent title would be unreverently answered." And 
there they left, and proceeded no further, at that time. 

Thus this court passed, from session to session, and 
day to day, insomuch that, a certain day, the King sent 
for my lord, at the breaking up of the court, to come to 
him into Bridewell. And to accomplish his command- 
ment, he went unto him, and being there, with him, in 
communication, in his grace's privy chamber, from eleven 
until twelve of the clock, and past, at noon, my lord came 
out, and departed from the King, and took his barge at 
the Black Friars, and so went to his house, at Westmin- 
ster. The Bishop of Carlisle, being with him, in his 
barge, said unto him, (wiping the sweat from his face,) 
" Sir," quoth he, " it is a very hot day." " Yea," quoth 
my Lord Cardinal, "if ye had been as well chafed as I 
have been, within this hour, ye would say, it were very 
hot." And, as soon as he came home to his house, at 
Westminster, he went, incontinent, to his naked bed ; 
where he had not lain, fully the space of two hours, but 
that my Lord of Wiltshire came to speak with him, of 
a message from the King. My lord, having understand- 
ing of his coming, caused him to be brought unto his bed- 
side ; and he, being there, showed him the King's pleas- 
ure was, that he should, incontinent, (accompanied with 
the other cardinal,) repair unto the Queen, at Bridewell, 
into her chamber, to persuade her, by their wisdoms, ad- 
vising her to surrender the whole matter unto the King's 
hands, by her own will and consent ; which should be 
much better to her honor, than to stand to the trial of 
law, and to be condemned, which would seem much to 
her slander and defamation. To fulfil the King's pleas- 



HENRY VIII. OP ENGLAND, AND HJS QUEEN. 283 

ure, my lord [said] he was ready, and would prepare him 
to go thither, out of hand, saying, further, to my Lord 
of Wiltshire, " Ye, and other my lords of the council, 
which be near unto the King, are not a little to blame, 
and misadvised, to put any such fantasies into his head, 
whereby ye are the causes of great trouble to ail the realm ; 
and at length get you but small thanks, either of God, or 
of the world," with many other vehement words and sen- 
tences, that were like to ensue of this matter, which words 
caused my Lord of Wiltshire to water his eyes, kneehng, 
all this while, by my lord's bedside, and, in conclusion, 
departed. And then, my lord rose up, and made him 
ready, taking his barge, and went straight to Bath Place, 
to the other cardinal, and so went together, unto Bride- 
well, directly to the Queen's lodging : and they, being in 
her chamber of presence, showed to the gentleman usher, 
that they came to speak with the Queen's grace. The 
gentleman usher advertised the Queen thereof, inconti- 
nent. With that, she came out of her privy chamber, 
with a skein of white thread about her neck, into the 
chamber of presence, where the cardinals were giving of 
attendance upon her coming. At whose coming, quoth 
she, " Alack, my lords, I am very sorry to cause you to 
attend upon me ; what is your pleasure with me .'^" " If 
it please you," quoth my lord cardinal, '' to go into your 
privy chamber, we will show you the cause of our com- 
ing." '^ My lord," quoth she, " if you have any thing 
to say, speak it, openly, before all these folks ; for I fear 
nothing that ye can say or allege against me, but that I 
would all the world should both hear and see it ; there- 
fore, I pray you, speak your minds, openly." Then be- 
gan my lord to speak to her, in Latin. "Nay, good 
my lord," quoth she, " speak to me in Enghsh, I beseech 
you ; although I understand Latin." " Forsooth, then," 
quoth my lord, " Madam, if it please your grace, we 
come both to know your mind, how ye be disposed to do 
in this matter between the King and you, and also to de- 
clare secretly our opinions, and our counsel unto you, 
which we have intended of very zeal and obedience, that 
we bear to your grace." '' My lords, I thank you, then," 



284 GREAT EVENTS. 

quolh she, " of your good wills ; but to make answer to 
your request, I cannot, so suddenly ; for I was set among 
my maidens, at work, thinking full little of any such mat- 
ter, wherein there needeth a longer deliberation, and a 
better head than mine, to make answer to so noble, wise 
men as ye be ; I had need of good counsel in this case, 
which toucheth me so near ; and for any counsel or 
friendship that I find in England, [they] are nothing to 
my purpose or profit. Think you, I pray you, my lords, 
will any Enghshmen counsel or be friendly unto me, 
against the King's pleasure, they being his subjects ? 
Nay, forsooth, my lords ! and for my counsel, in whom 
I do intend to put my trust, be not here ; they be in 
Spain, in my native country. Alas ! my lords ! I am a 
poor woman, lacking both wit and understanding, suffi- 
ciently to answer such approved wise men, as ye be, both, 
in so weighty a matter. I pray you, to extend your good 
and indifterent minds in your authority unto me, for I am 
a simple woman, destitute and barren of friendship and 
counsel, here, in a foreign region ; and as for your coun- 
sel, I will not refuse, but be glad, to hear." 

And with that, she took my lord by the hand, and led 
him into her privy chamber, with the other cardinal ; 
where they were in long communication. We, in the oth- 
er chamber, might sometime hear the Queen speak, very 
loud, but what it was, we could not understand. The 
communication ended, the cardinals departed, and went 
directly to the King, making to him relation of their talk 
with the Queen ; and, after, resorted to their own houses, 
to supper. 

Thus went this strange case forward, from court-day 
to court-day, until it came to the judgement ; so that 
every man expected the judgement to be given upon the 
next court-day. At which day, the King came thither, 
and sat within a gallery, against the door of the same, that 
looked unto the judges where they sat, whom he might both 
see and hear speak, to hear what judgement they would 
give in his suit ; at which time, all their proceedings were 
first openly read, in Latin. And that done, the King's 
learned counsel, at the bar, called fast for judgement 



HENRY Vill. OF ENGLAND, AND HIS QUEEN. 285 

With that, quoth Cardinal Campeggio,* '' I will give no 
judgement herein, until I have made relation unto the 
Pope, of all our proceedings, whose counsel and com 
mandment in this high case I will observe. The case is 
too high and notable, known throughout the world, for us 
to give any hasty judgement, considering the highness of 
the persons and the doubtful allegations : and also, whose 
commissioners we be, under whose authority we sit here. 
It were, therefore, reason, that we should make our chief 
head [of] counsel in the same, before we proceed to 
judgement definitive. I come not so far, to please any 
man, for fear, need, or favor, be he king, or any other 
potentate. I have no such respect to the persons, that 
I will offend my conscience. I will not, for favor or dis- 
pleasure of any high estate or mighty prince, do that thing 
that should be against the law of God. I am an old man, 
both sick and impotent, looking, daily, for death. What 
should it then avail me to put my soul in the danger of 
God's displeasure, to my utter condemnation, for the fa- 
vor of any prince or high estate in this world ^ My com- 
ing and being here is only to see justice ministered, accord- 
ing to my conscience, as I thought thereby the matter either 
good or bad. And, forasmuch as I do understand, and 
having perceivance by the allegations and negations in 
this matter, laid for both the parties, that the truth, in 
this case, is very doubtful to be known, and also, that the 
party defendant will make no answer thereunto, [but] 
doth rather appeal from us, supposing that we be not in- 
different, considering the King's high dignity and authori- 
ty, within this his own realm, which he hath over his 
own subjects ; and we being his subjects, and having our 
livings and dignities in the same, she thinketh that we 
cannot minister true and indifferent justice, for fear of his 
displeasure. Therefore, to avoid all these ambiguities 
and obscure doubts, I intend not to condemn my soul, 

* This determination of Campeggio was in consequence of secret 
instructions from the Pope, (unknown to Wolsey,) at the instance of 
the Emperor, [Charles V.,] who had prevailed upon the Pontiff to 
adjourn the court, and remove the cause to Rome. — JVote of the Eng- 
lish Editor. 



286 GREAT EVENTS. 

for no prince or potentate alive. I will, therefore, God 
willing, wade no further, in this matter, unless I have the 
just opinion and judgement, with the assent, of the Pope, 
and such other of his counsel as hath more experience 
and learning in such doubtful laws, than I have. Where- 
fore, I will adjourn this court, for this time, according to 
the order of the court in Rome, whence this court and 
jurisdiction is derived. And if we should go further, than 
our commission doth warrant us, it were folly and vain, 
and much to our slander and blame ; and [we] might be 
accounted, for the same, breakers of the order of the high- 
er court, whence we have (as I said) our original author- 
ities." With that, the court was dissolved, and no more 
pleas holden. 



SIEGES OF LEYDEN AND OSTEND. 287 



THE SIEGES OF LEYDEN AND OSTEND, IN 
THE WAR OF THE NETHERLANDS, FOR IN- 
DEPENDENCE. 

BY BENTIVOGLIO. 

Guy Bentivoglio, descended from an ancient and dis- 
tinguished noble family, in Italy, was born at Ferrara, in 
the year 1579. He died in 1644, while present, as cardi- 
nal, in the conclave which had assembled after the death 
of Pope Urban the Eighth. Bentivoglio occupied many 
high stations in the Papal government. In 1607, he was 
sent by Pope Paul the Fifth to Flanders, as Papal nuncio. 
Here, he remained nine years ; after which, he went, in 
the same capacity, to France. He left many works, among 
which, are ' Cardinal Bentivoglio's Relations of Events 
during his Embassies to Flanders and France.' His ac- 
counts of the war in the Netherlands were translated and 
published under the title of ' History of the Wars in Flan- 
ders, Englished by Henry, Earl of Monmouth, 1698." 
From this translation the following extracts are taken, with 
some modifications, adapting it to the class of readers for 
whom this Volume is intended. The war for independence, 
waged by the Netherlands against the crown of Spain, ad- 
mits of being considered in various points of view. We 
may consider it with reference to the almost unparallelled 
heroism of the people, during a fearfully cruel and san 
guinary war, protracted through a long series of years ; oi 
to the remarkable character of their great general, states- 
man, citizen, and martyr, William of Orange, surnamed 
the Silent. We may consider the war with relation to its 
cause and object, religion and liberty ; or to its effects, 
and those of its final issue, upon the politics of Britain, and, 
more or less directly, upon those of all European nations 
and their descendants in other parts of the world. We may 
view it with reference to the great political principles which 
were, for the first time, boldly proclaimed, when that nation 
struggled into an independent existence ; or to the great 
effect which its independence had upon the whole history 
of commerce, and upon many principles radically affecting 
the great exchange of produce among the various nations 



288 GREAT EVENTS. 

of the world. In whatever light, however, we regard it, 
this event must certainly be called one of the most promi- 
nent in the history of man. 

Very many instances of heroic fortitude, not only in men, 
but even in women, were exhibited in the course of that 
long war. But nowhere, probably, were more striking 
examples of this virtue shown, than in the almost superhu- 
man endurance of the citizens, when besieged by the Span- 
iards. Even indifferent soldiers will do their duty, suffi- 
ciently well, so long as the army is victorious ; but retreats 
and sieges are the touchstones of sound warriors. If this 
is an acknowledged truth, with regard to regular, tried, 
and well-disciplined troops, it is still more so, in the case 
of citizens who have suddenly become soldiers. Gallant 
bands of citizens, who would have died, nobly, in open bat- 
tle, will, nevertheless, often falter, when hunger and disease 
beset them on all sides, in a besieged fortress, when near 
and dear relations drop off, one by one, around them, and 
no hope is visible, even in the furthest horizon. Yet, in 
all these trials, the Netherlanders remained firm. 

From the series of sieges, which took place during this 
war, those of Leyden and Ostend have been selected. 
Numerous incidents might have been added to the narra- 
tive of Bentivoglio, who, the reader will perceive, had no 
interest in representing the courage of the Protestants in 
a favorable light. Accounts of many such incidents are to 
be found in Campen's History of the Netherlands ; but 
the plan of the present work did not admit of their insertion. 

The intervening passages, and the notes, are taken from 
the work, already quoted : ' Historical Parallels,' London, 
1831. 

SIEGE OF LEYDEN.* 

" Now followed the Siege of Leyden, which was par- 
ticularly memorable for the condition of the succor, which 
so altered the order of affairs, that the besiegers became 
besieged ; and, whatever unhappy success the assailed ex- 
pected, the assailant made trial of the very same. Ley- 
den is one of the chief towns of Holland ; it is seated 
low, in the midst, it may be said, of a labyrinth of chan- 
nels, which cut through the territories thereof, on all sides, 
and are filled, part with running, and part with standing, 

* The siege of Leyden took place in the year, 1574. 



SIEGE OF LEYDEN. 289 

waters ; the Rhine, or rather, one of its branches, runs 
through it ; a branch, which, though now the weakest, hath 
formerly been the most frequented ; and still retains its 
ancient name, whereas the rest, as they draw near the 
sea, lose their names in those of other rivers. So many 
other channels are derived from this branch, within the 
town itself, in several parts, that the space, which is there 
broken off by the islands, is, in some degree, larger than 
that which is united to the continent. But, if it be divid- 
ed by so many channels, it is rejoined by many more 
bridges, of which there are about a hundred and fifty, 
serving either for use or ornament ; the most of them 
being of stone. The town is well peopled ; the streets 
are large, and the buildings well polished. It is well 
flanked, round about ; the surrounding ditch is every 
where deep ; and, in fine, the town is, in all circumstances, 
in such condition, that the king's men had good reason to 
use all endeavors to gain, and the rebels to keep, posses- 
sion of it. 

" The royalists endeavored, with diligence, to make 
themselves masters of all avenues, whereby succor might 
be given to the town. The parts thereabouts (as hath 
been said) are full of channels and rivers ; wherefore it 
was thought necessary to block up, with sundry forts, all 
passages, by which the city might be approached, either 
by land or water ; so that, ere long, nearly sixty forts had 
been built round about it, whereby almost all possibility of 
relieving it was taken away. The Leydenists, in the mean- 
while, were not wanting, on their parts, in preparing for 
defence. And, judging that the royalists intended rath- 
er to take the town by famine, than by the sword, they 
thought it convenient not to receive many foreign soldiers 
into the city, that they might the longer preserve their 
provisions ; and they also hoped, they had men enough of 
their own to maintain and defend it.* 

'' JohnDouza, a famous Latin poet in those days, very 
nobly born, and of other high deserts, had the chief gov- 

* The citizens replied to a summons to surrender, that they would 
not lack food, while their left arms remained, but feed on them, and 
fight for liberty with their right. — Strcda, ie Bella Belgico, lib. viii. 
25 G. E. 



290 GREAT EVENTS. 

ernment of the affairs of the city. He failed not m act- 
ing his part well ; he still encouraged the Leydenists, and 
fed them with hopes, that the other cities would speedily 
join with and relieve them. In confirmation of this, letters 
and messages sometimes came, from without, and some 
news was cunningly raised, within the town itself; though 
it was very true, that Orange and the rest of the rebels in 
that province labored for nothing more, than how to keep 
a place of such consequence still at their devotion. It 
was now the month of August ; and the Leydenists al- 
ready began to suffer, from want of provisions. The 
states of the country, therefore, met, to treat of so weighty 
a business, and to find out some way, whereby the city 
might be relieved ; and this affair began to be of great 
importance. The deputies differed in their opinions ; 
some thought, that the town might be most easily succor- 
ed by making a gallant assault by land ; others held, that 
it might better be relieved by some river or channel ; but 
the greatest part concluded, that there was little hope of 
doing it either one way or the other, the king's men hav- 
ing so strongly fortified themselves, every where. Lewis 
Boisot, admiral of Holland, was at this meeting. He 
was a man very expert in maritime affairs ; of a manlike 
spirit, and good at execution ; and one who was very well 
esteemed over all the province. He, whilst they were 
hottest in the variety of their opinions, stepped forth, to 
propound his, and began to speak thus : 

'' ^ I wish that our own misfortunes did not too deplor- 
ably teach us how perverse the fury of the sea sometimes 
proves to our countries. Who sees not, how we are 
daily forced to oppose our industry to the threats there- 
of ? Nor have our mountainous banks been sufficient so 
to curb the tempest of her waves, but that, sometimes, she 
hath swallowed up whole islands, on some sides, and caused 
miserable and unheard-of ruin, in other parts. We are 
now to seek for remedy, in this our present necessity, 
from the evils which do so often afflict us. Let Nature 
work the same effect, to-day, for our good, which she 
hath, upon so many other occasions, for our hurt. And, 
with those weapons, wherewith she makes war against us, 



SIEGE OF LEYDEN. 291 

let us, by her example, wake war upon our enemies. 
Every one knows, that, at the two equinoxes of the year, 
the ocean swells extraordinarily high, upon our coasts ^ 
and, by the season of the year, we are shortly to expect 
the effects thereof. My counsel shall, therefore, be, that 
we may, immediately, at the high tides, begin to let the 
waters loose into the neighboring ground of Leyden : 
greater tides will hereafter follow. And thus, turning 
the siege upon the besiegers, we may hope to destroy 
our enemies, within their own works, and, at the same 
time, to free the city from all danger. It may be thought 
impossible to relieve it by land, or by the ordinary way 
of channels or rivers ; whereas, by the way which I have 
prescribed, we may believe that our enterprise will be 
smiled on, by success. It will be in our power, to let in 
the inundation, where we please. We shall see the ene- 
my strangely astonished and confused, between the shame 
of abandoning the siege and the horror of continuing it. 
But, being forced, at last, to fly, we shall see our own 
weapons and those of Nature conspire together, in slaugh- 
tering them on all sides ; and shall see that punishment 
justly transferred to them, which they, with open violence, 
prepared for the innocent. The portion of country, which 
shall be drowned, will, doubtless, be somewhat damaged 
thereby ; but who would not bear with an inconvenience, 
from which their country shall receive so great a benefit .'' 
On the contrary, whose hair will not stand on end, to 
think, that, after the loss of Haerlem and of Leyden, the 
whole province will shortly remain at the cruel will of the 
Spaniards ? We must sometimes do apparent injury, in 
order to effect good. How oft do we cut off some one 
member, for the welfare and safeguard of the rest of the 
body ? Yet this evil will not prove finally so great, but 
that it will, in time, be paid with great usury. Some 
worldly actions prove so memorable, that they strike envy 
dumb, and add new tongues to fame. This of ours will 
certainly be such, and will be, every where, highly cele- 
brated. I, who so boldly give the advice, do, as confi- 
dently, pronounce the augury ; and hope that the event 
will crown both of them with fortunate success.' 



292 GREAT EVENTS. 

'' At the hearing of so strange a proposition, the depu- 
ties were much confused, whether they should accept or 
reject it. But it is ofttimes seen, that, need passing into 
necessity, necessity passeth into desperation. And thus 
it proved, in what we shall now relate. For all of them, 
joining, at last, in opinion, that Leyden was not to be 
freed by any other way than by what Boisot had pro- 
pounded, it was resolved, that, at all adventures, they 
would follow his advice. The chief banks or ditches of the 
Meuse and Isell, between Rotterdam and Tergowe, were 
presently cut through, in divers places ; and, at the high 
tide, the waters began to break in, every where, and over- 
flow all the grounds, which lie between Tergowe, Rotter- 
dam, Delf, and Leyden. At the sight of this unlooked-for 
inundation, the Spaniards were, at first, much astonished ; 
but they were soon aware of their enemies' design. The 
king's forts were very many, as we have said, and divers 
of them were situated in the lowest places. These the in- 
undation quickly reached, and, therefore, they were speed- 
ily forsaken : and those who kept them went to join with 
those that kept the chief forts, which were so placed that 
they might be the more easily maintained. In the mean- 
while, when once the enemy had adopted the aforesaid 
resolution, they applied themselves apace, to get together 
many vessels, which should be fit to relieve Leyden. 
They were very careful to build them with shallow bot- 
toms, to the end that they might pass over those grounds 
where the waters were shallowest. The greatest part of 
them were built in Rotterdam, by reason of the nearness 
and opportunity of its situation. The whole country was 
in great expectation of the result, and, therefore, people 
flocked from all parts, to help to build boats ; many of 
which were to be in the form of galleys with oars, to the 
end that they might the easier get by the passes, and as- 
sault the forts, which were yet in the royalists' possession. 
These boats were therefore furnished with many pieces 
of artillery, and such people as were judged fit to fight. 
Whilst they were making this preparation, the admiral of 
Holland endeavored, with some ships prepared for that 
purpose, to force certain passes, and to bring some sue 



SIEGE OF LEYDEN. 293 

cor into Leyden ; for the besieged suffered, very much, 
for want of victuals, and did very earnestly solicit suc- 
cor. But his design did not, at that time, take effect ; 
for the waters were not yet so far increased, that his ves- 
sels could come near Leyden. All Holland joined, there- 
fore, in their prayers, that the sea might suddenly swell 
higher ; and that the province, by the raising of the siege 
of Leyden, might receive so desired a misfortune. 

" On the other side, the king's men were not backward 
in securing their forts, and repairing them with earth, hay, 
and whatsoever else they could procure, suitable for the 
purpose ; and, hoping that the Vv^aters would swell no 
higher, they persuaded themselves that they should, within 
a (ew days, finish their business. They very well knew 
the townsmen's necessities ; and that, all their victuals be- 
ing already spent, the affairs within were drawing to great 
extremity. While both sides were in these hopes and 
fears, the time came, when Nature, by way of her hidden 
causes, was hkewise to work her effects. About the end 
of September, the sea began to swell, exceedingly, ac- 
cording as it usually does at that season of the year ; and 
pouring in, at the high tides, no longer waves, but even 
mountains of waters, into the most inward channels and 
rivers, made so great an inundation, that all the country 
about Leyden seemed to be turned into a sea.* It can- 
not be said how much the rebels were hereby encouraged, 
and the king's men discouraged. The former came pres- 
ently forth with their fleet, which consisted of about one 
hundred and fifty bottoms, a great part whereof were made 
like galleys ; and to these, were added many other boats, 
which served only to carry provisions. The whole fleet 
was thus assembled together, about the beginning of Oc- 
tober, and put to water in good order, to execute their 
designed relief. The galleys went on the outsides ; the 
other great vessels, which, if need should be, were to play 
upon the forts, in the midst ; and those which bore the 
victuals, in the rear. But there was no occasion of any 

* Strada says, with an expression of incre4ulity, t»owover, that, by 
means of this inundation, vessels came, ovRr-'atd, to 1 eyd^n, P-ow a 
distance of forty miles. 

25* 



294 GREAT EVENTS. 

great contention ; for the king's men, having valiantly de- 
fended themselves, in sundry places, considering that they 
were not now to fight with men, but with the elements, 
thought rather how to withdraw themselves into places 
of safety, than rashly to oppose the enemy. Yet they 
could not abandon their fortifications, neither so soon nor 
in so good order, but that many of them remained a prey, 
either to the sword or to the water. And, truly, it was 
a miserable spectacle, to behold, from all parts, one slain, 
another drowned ; and many endeavor to save themselves 
in the highest places, where, when they were freed from 
the waters, they were inexorably slain by the enemy.* 
It is said, that above fifteen hundred of the king's men 
perished thus, most of them Spaniards, who were chiefly 
employed in ordering the siege, and who, desirous to 
bear away the greatest glory, fell into the greatest misfor- 
tune. Thus was Leyden, at last, relieved, after five 
months' siege, to the exceeding great joy of the rebels, and 
all that favored them. But, nevertheless, the memory 
of this siege remained a long time very sorrowful in the 
city ; for about ten thousand died, within the town, of 
hunger and other sufferings ; and all the most unclean and 
vilest nourishment was already consumed, when the relief 
was brought in ; and the besieged, resolving rather to die 
than to yield, expected nothing but that the city should 
give up her last breath, and, remaining a miserable car- 
cass, should be buried within her own walls and houses." 
So far Bentivogho. 

In this siege, the Spanish general committed a fatal 
error, in not trying an assault, which might probably have 
succeeded, since there were no regular troops within the 
town ; a body of Enghsh auxiliaries, who were placed in 

t The Dutch annoyed the Spaniards much, with sharp hooks fastened 
>o poles or ropes, by which they drew up the Spaniards into their ship- 
ping. One Peter Borgia was caught up with four hooks, into a vessel 
holding six or seven men, and supposed to be mortally hurt ; but pres- 
ently, while they were deeply engaged in fishing for more men, he 
caught up a battle-axe, and set on them, from behind, with such fury, 
that he killed three, and frightened the rest overboard, and thus carried 
off, to the Spanish camp, a vessel laden with provisions. — Straday 
Bell. Belg. lib. viii. 



SIEGE OF LEYDEN. 295 

advance, near Gouda, and intended by the Prince of 
Orange to form the garrison of Leyden, when dislodged, 
having beiiaved so ill in the first skirmish, that the citizens 
refused them entrance within the walls. And this step, 
which might have been their ruin, became the cause of 
their safety, for the additional number of consumers must 
have brought their provisions to an earlier end, besides 
that no troops, comparatively uninterested in the event, 
would have endured the extremity of distress to which the 
men of Leyden were reduced. Of the amount of their 
suffering, which the Italian historian, just quoted, barely 
notices, the reader will be enabled to form a fuller idea, 
by a few particulars, derived from other authorities. 

" With extreme impatience, they now expected the 
approach of those tides, which are commonly the object 
of their dread and terror. The situation of the besieged 
had become most desperate and deplorable. During 
seven weeks, there had not been a morsel of bread within 
the city ; and the only food had been the roots of herbs 
and weeds, and the flesh of dogs and horses. Even all 
these were at length consumed, and the people reduced 
to Hve on soup, made of the hides of animals which had 
been killed. A pestilence succeeded to the famine, and 
carried off, in a few weeks, some thousands of the in- 
habitants. Those who survived, overwhelmed with an- 
guish, at the dismal scenes which they daily beheld, were 
scarcely able to perform the mournful office of burying 
the dead. In this dreadful situation, they saw, from their 
walls, the flags and sails of the vessels destined for their 
relief, but had the mortification to perceive, that it was 
utterly impossible for them to approach. It is not sur- 
prising, that some of the people, finding their misery 
greater than they were able to endure, should have enter- 
tained the thoughts of surrendering the town to the enemy. 
Some conspiracies were again formed for this purpose, 
but they were discovered and defeated by the vigilance 
of Douza, supported by a great majority of the people, 
to whom neither the pestilence, nor famine, nor death in 
its most hideous forms, appeared so dreadful, as the ty- 
ranny of the Spaniards. 



296 GREAT EVENTS. 

" A great number of people having come, one day, in 
a tumultuous manner, to a magistrate, whose name was 
Adrian, exclaiming that he ought either to give them food, 
or deliver the town into the hands of the enemy : ' I have 
solemnly sworn,' he replied, 'that I will never surrender 
myself, or my fellow-citizens, to the cruel and perfidious 
Spaniard ; and I will sooner die, than violate my oath. 
I have no food, else I would give it you. But, if my 
death can be of use to you, take, tear me in pieces, and 
devour me. I shall die with satisfaction, if I know, that 
by my death, I shall, for one moment, relieve you from 
your direful necessity.' By this extraordinary answer, 
the people, struck with astonishment, were silenced, and 
their fury was, for some time, appeased."* 

SIEGE OF OSTEND. 

" We will now come to the siege of Ostend, which, 
being one of the most memorable of this our age, doth 
certainly require, that, as much brevity and diligence as 
may be being joined together, it be duly considered and 
represented with all clearness. It w^as above three years, 
before it was brought to an end ; and it was almost as 
uncertain, at the last day, as at the first, to which side 
the victory did incline. The besieged never wanted 
fresh succors by sea, nor did the besiegers, at any time, 
cease advancing by land. Infinite were the batteries, the 
assaults infinite ; so many were the mines, and so obsti- 
nate the countermines, that it may be almost affirmed, 
that as much work was done, under, as above, ground. 
New names were to be found for new engines. There 
was a perpetual dispute between the sea and land ; the 
w^orks on the latter could not produce so much, as the 
mines made by the former did destroy. Great store of 
blood ran, every where, and men were readier to lose it 
than to preserve it, till the besieged wanting ground, and 
rather what to defend than defence, they were at last 
forced to abandon that little spot of ground which was 
left them, and to yield. 

* Watson's History of Philip IL 



SZEGE or 6STEND. 297 

" Ostend stands upon the seashore, in the midst of a 
marshy ground, and of divers channels, which come from 
the continent ; but it is chiefly environed, on almost all 
sides, by two of the greatest of these channels, by which 
the sea enters into the land, and rises so high, when it is 
full sea, that you would rather think the town were buried, 
than situated, in the sea. In former times, it was an 
open place, and served rather as a habitation for shep- 
herds than for soldiers. But the importance of the site 
being afterwards considered, the houses were enclosed 
with a platform, instead of a wall, and, from time to time, 
the line was so flanked round about it, that it proved to 
be one of the strongest towns of all the province of 
Flanders. It is divided into two parts, which are called 
the old town and the new. The former, which is the 
lesser, stands towards the sea ; the latter and greater lies 
towards the land. The old town is fenced from the fury 
of the sea by great piles of wood, driven into the ground, 
and joined together, for the defence of that part ; and 
there, the waves sufliciently supply the part of a ditch. 
The channels may be said to do the like, on the sides ; 
and, especially at full sea, the channels become havens, 
being then capable of holding any kind of vessels, and 
by them, at all times, barks of the middle size enter into 
the ditches, and, from the ditches, in divers parts, into 
the town itself; and, in addition to the chief well-flanked 
hne, on the outside of the ditch, there is, towards the 
land side, a strada coperta raised, which is so well fur- 
nished with new flanks, and with a new ditch, that this 
outward fortification doth hardly give way to any of the 
inward ones. The town is but of a small compass, and 
is ennobled rather by its situation and fortifications, than 
by any splendor either of inhabitants or houses. The 
United Provinces caused it to be very carefully kept at 
this time, wherefore it was largely provided with men, 
artillery, ammunition, and whatsoever else was necessary 
for the defence thereof. In this condition was the town, 
when the Archduke resolved to sit down before it." 

On the east of the town, there was a detached fort, 
called St. Alberto ; on the west, another, called Bre- 



298 GREAT EVENTS. 

dene ; both which had been abandoned by the garrison. 
These were occupied by the besieging army, which pro- 
ceeded to surround Ostend, on the land side, with a chain 
of works. This was not done without sliarp fighting ; 
for the governor. Sir Francis Vere, had raised redoubts 
in front of his fortifications, and hotly contested every 
inch of ground. It seemed, also, necessary to cut off 
the communication with the sea ; and, with this view, a 
bank was run out, on the eastern side, from St. Alberto, 
to prevent barks from entering by the channel in that 
quarter. But it was also expedient to block up the 
channel, on the side of Bredene, and, in doing this, 
greater difficulties were to be overcome. 

The siege began in the Summer of 1601, and the 
Autumn had been consumed in these works, when, to- 
wards the end of December, a terrible storm from the 
sea so shattered the town, that the inhabitants, despairing 
of being able to resist an assault, began to parley ; but 
their spirits were recruited, and the negotiations broken 
off, by a seasonable re-enforcement, both of men and all 
manner of provisions. The Archduke, being thus dis- 
appointed in his hopes, gave orders that a battery should 
be raised, on the side of St. Alberto, which played so 
furiously upon the sea-bulwark, that a practicable breach 
was soon made, and an assault ordered. To divert the 
enemy, directions were given that Count Bucquoy, who 
commanded at Bredene, should pass the channel there, 
and fall with his men on the wall, where it was beaten 
down, and that, upon the land-side, there should be alarms 
given, every where. " When they came to the assault, 
the assailants behaved themselves gallantly, and used all 
means to get upon the wall ; and, though many of them 
fell down, dead and wounded, and the horror of night, 
which already came on, made their dangers the more 
terrible, yet did it serve rather to set the Catholics 'on 
fire, than to make them cool in their fight. But there 
appeared no less resoluteness of resistance in those 
within ; for, opposing themselves, valiantly, on all sides, 
and being very well able to do it, having so many men, 
and such store of all necessary provisions, they stoutlv 



SIEGE OP OSTEND. 299 

defended themselves. Upon the coming on of night, 
they had set up many hghts, in divers parts of the town, 
whereby they the better maintained the places assigned 
to them, and with more secm-ity hit those that assailed 
them, as well as came the better to where their help was 
required. They also soon discerned, that they were all 
false alarms that were given without, and that the true 
assault was made only in one place. To this was added, 
that Count Bucquoy, not finding the water of the afore- 
said channel so deep as he believed, could by no means 
pass over to them. Yet the Catholics did, for a long 
time, continue their assault ; but, the defendants' advan- 
tages still increasing, the assailants were at last forced to 
give over, with great loss ; for there were above six 
hundred slain and wounded. Nor did those within let 
slip the occasion of injuring, yet more, the Catholics, as 
they retreated ; for, plucking up some of their sluices, 
by which they both received the sGawater into their 
ditches and let it out again, they turned the water with 
such violence into the channel, which the Catholics had 
passed over before they came to the assault, and which 
they were to pass over again, in their retreat, that many 
of them were unfortunately drowned." 

The year 1602 set in with such severe cold, that the 
Archduke was advised to abandon the siege. But he 
would not be persuaded thereto, thinking the King's 
honor, as well as his own, engaged in its success. He 
ordered, therefore, a great platform to be raised in the 
quarter of St. Alberto, which might command the town, 
as much as possible, and gave new orders, that Bucquoy 
should advance, with all possible speed, the great bank, 
which was designed to obstruct the channel of Bredene. 
Having given these orders, he retired to Ghent, and left 
the camp-master, John di Rivas, in command of the 
siege, who employed himself, diligently, in forwarding 
these important works. '' To the first and largest foun- 
dation, which was well incorporated with wet sand, and 
other condense matter, others of the like sort were added, 
till the dike was raised to the height it ought to be ; and 
the breadth thereof was extraordinarily great. In aadi- 



300 GREAT EVENTS. 

tion to the ordinary plain thereof, upon which two great 
cannons might stand abreast, there was a great parapet 
raised in it against the town, to shelter the soldiers., 
which, being in divers places furnished with artillery, did 
greatly endamage the enemy likewise on that side. Thi- 
work was made in a sandy and low situation, whither the 
sea, at full tide, came ; so that it cannot be said with 
how much expense, labor, and loss of blood, this work 
was advanced." Still, the town continued to receive 
succors, as plentifully as ever, and the works proceeded, 
so slowly, from without, that the hopes of bringing the 
siege to a happy end did daily rather decrease than in- 
crease. Yet Rivas was very diligent in discharging his 
duty ; the platform was completed, and mounted with 
cannon, and the besieged were driven from some of their 
outer works ; these were then furnished with artillery, 
which he turned against the fortifications which shelter- 
ed the town, on that side. 

" Some progress was, likewise, daily made, on the Bre- 
dene side, in advancing the great dike. Bucquoy had 
the chief charge thereof, and it was called by his name. 
And he used all possible diligence to harass the town, 
and the entrance of the channel, on that side. But there 
appeared no less vigilance in the besieged ; their courage 
abounded, according as the town did abound with all 
sorts of provisions. There was hardly any one day, in 
which they did not sally out ; nor did the besiegers do 
any thing which cost not much labor and blood. The 
platform was made chiefly of bavins and other wood, and 
the great dike was composed of the like materials. Two 
furious batteries were therefore levelled from the town, 
with artificial fireballs, against these two works, to set 
them on fire, and endamage them, by that means. Nor 
did they fail in their design ; for, by long battering, they 
at last took fire, and were thereby so torn and spoiled, 
that it cost much time and the death of many men, to re- 
make them. Nor was the enemies' loss less, either in 
number or quality. 

" Pompeio Torgone, a famous engineer, came, at 
this time, from Italy to Flanders, drawn thither by the 



SIEGE OP OSTEND. 301 

fame of this siege. He had a very ready wit, whicn 
made him apt for inventions in his calling ; but, having 
never, till then, passed from the theory to the practical 
part in military affairs, it was soon seen, that many of 
his imaginations did not, upon trial, prove such, as in ap- 
pearance they promised to be. He began to build a 
castle of wood, upon boats fastened together. The castle 
was round, high, and large, proportionably. On the top 
thereof, it was capable of six great pieces of artillery, 
on one side, and, on the other side, there was place 
enough for those soldiers who were to attend them. 
Torgone intended to bring this machine into the mouth 
of the channel, and to firmly fix it there, where succor 
was brought into Ostend, hoping, thereby, to keep the 
town from relief. But this could not so soon be done, 
but that it was preceded by the other work of drawing 
the great dike to the same channel, whereupon to raise 
afterwards a fort, by which that passage might be so 
much the more impeded. To accelerate this work, 
likewise, Torgone bethought himself of other engines, 
by means of which the great quantity of materials, 
whereof the dike was made, might the more easily be 
brought into use. These materials being put together, 
in manner as they ought to be, he placed a certain num- 
ber of litde barrels under the hollow of the middle thereof, 
and on the sides, by which, at full sea, the engines float- 
ed, and were afterwards brought, by cranes, to join with 
the dike, in that part where the work was continued on. 
These engines were called floats. But, such was the 
tempest of the enemies' cannon-shot, which incessantly 
fell upon them, when they rested upon the sand ; and 
then, again, they were so injured by the sea-storms, that 
ofttimes the work of many days was destroyed in a few 
hours. And really it was pitiful, to see how much blood 
was there shed, and how little the meaner sort of people, 
who were employed therein, did, out of a desire of gain, 
value it." 

This was the condition of Ostend, when the Archduke 
bethought himself to give the care of the siege to the 
Marquis Spinola. Great, certainly, was the honor of 
26 G. E. 



302 GREAT EVENTS. 

such an employment, yet there seemed so httle prospect 
of success, that Spinola hesitated for some time ; but, 
finally, being persuaded there was more of hope than 
fear, in the offer that was made him, he resolved cheer- 
fully to accept it. 

" The first thing, the Marquis did, was, to make great 
store of provision, of all such materials as were necessa- 
ry, as well for the work of the great dike, on the Bre- 
dene side, as for the other works, which were to be made 
on the side of St. Alberto ; on which side, the town was 
chiefly intended to be straitened and forced ; the ground 
over against it was all sandy, and full of channels and 
little rivulets, besides those two greater channels, already 
mentioned, which fell into the sea. The same sea, like- 
wise, at the flood, did so whirl about every place, there- 
abouts, that earth was not any where to be found of which 
to make trenches ; these had, therefore, to be supplied 
with the above materials. This was chiefly brought by 
the floats, invented by Torgone ; and, though the great 
dike did daily advance, yet it was known, that such a 
work would prove too long and too uncertain. The 
hope of keeping out succor becoming every day less and 
less, Spinola bent all his endeavors to take the town by 
force. We told you, before, that all vessels were hinder- 
ed, by a fort, from coming into the lesser channel, which 
falls into the sea, on the St. Alberto side. Yet the 
channel itself was of great advantage to the enemy, on 
that side, as it served for a great ditch to their counter- 
scarp, which was strong of itself, and yet made stronger 
by many flanks, by which it was defended. Before the 
Catholics could come to assault the counterscarp, they 
must first pass over the channel, which it was difficult to 
do, with safety or shelter, in any part thereof, as it was 
evidently seen, that many of them must perish, being 
exposed to be injured by the enemy. The attack was 
led on, on four sides, from the St. Alberto quarter. The 
Germans wrought nearer the sea ; then followed the 
Spaniards ; after them, the Italians ; and, on the outmost 
side, more towards land, the Walloons and Burgonians. 
Great was the fervency of all these nations ; and such a 



SIEGE OF OSTEND. 303 

contention was there among them, in striving which of 
them should most advance the works, that the soldiers' 
emulation seemed rather a contest between enemies than 
between rivals. The channel was narrower and more 
shallow where the Burgonians and Walloons wrought. 
They were, therefore, the first that passed over it, and 
afterwards the other nations did the like. To pass over 
it, a great quantity of the materials before mentioned were 
thrown into every part thereof, where the aforesaid na- 
tions wrought. Those materials were reduced to dikes 
or banks, upon which the soldiers advanced towards the 
town. But very many of them were slain and wounded. 
For the defendants, with their hail of musket-shot, and 
tempest of greater artillery, charged with little bullets and 
shot in a great quantity, and ofttimes with artificial fire, 
made the Catholics' work, on all sides, very bloody. The 
soldiers, that they might enjoy the best shelter that they 
could, invented many fences ; some consisted of gabions, 
filled with earth, well joined and fastened together ; oth- 
ers of long bavins, which stood upright, and so thick, that 
they were musket proof; and others, of several forms, 
made of the before-mentioned materials. Torgone in- 
vented, likewise, a great cart, from which a bridge, 
made of cloth and cords, might, unexpectedly, be thrown 
over the channel, and so the enemies' defences the easier 
be assaulted. The cart stood upon four very high 
wheels ; and, upon the fore part thereof, rose up, as it 
were, the mast of a ship, which served chiefly to let down 
and to take up the bridge. But the whole bulk proved 
to be of so cumbersome a size, and so hard to be man- 
aged, that, before it was undertaken, it was known it 
could work to no advantage. The aforesaid fences were 
wrought, where the artillery of the town could not reach ; 
and, at the flowing of the sea, they were brought upon 
the floats, to the places, where they were made use of. 
Great was the mortality, likewise, of those that wrought 
here ; the enemy making usually such havoc of them, 
with their muskets, artillery, and sallies, that, ofttimes, 
hardly one of them could be saved. But money still pro- 
cured new men, and ofttimes the soldiers themselves 



304 GREAT EVENTS. 

wrought. Nor was Spinola wanting, in being, as it were, 
in all places at all times, and in exposing himself, as 
well as any of the rest, to all labor and danger ; encour- 
aging some, rewarding others, and behaving himself so, 
that his imitating, without any manner of respect unto him- 
self, the most hazardous works of others, made the rest 
the more ready to imitate his. 

" When all the nations had passed the channel, each 
of them began, with Hke emulation, to force the ravelins 
and half-moons, which sheltered the counterscarp. And 
the Walloons and Burgonians, by reason of their quarter, 
were the first that did it, but with much effusion of blood, 
even of the noblest amongst them ; for, amongst the rest, 
Catris, a Walloon camp-master, was lost, a valiant and 
greatly experienced soldier, whom Spinola highly es- 
teemed, both for his deeds and counsel. With the like 
progress, and no less loss of blood, did the other nations 
advance. So that the enemies, at last, lost all the forti- 
fications which they had, without their principal line ; 
about which, ran a great ditch, but not so hard to pass, 
as was the channnel which fenced the counterscarp. The 
easier doing of it made the Catholics hope better in the 
effecting thereof ; wherefore, full of fresh courage, they 
prepared to continue their labors, more heartily than ever, 
that they might the sooner end the siege ; but the Winter, 
being already come, much hindered their works, and the 
sea did then more destroy them by her tempests. The 
enemy, likewise, made very fierce opposition ; they set 
up batteries within, against the batteries without ; mines 
opposed countermines ; they repaired themselves, on all 
sides ; and, as fast as one rampart was lost, they set up 
another. So that the Catholics had to advance, as it 
were, by inches ; and yet they did so advance, that, by 
the Spring, they had got well forward into the ditch. 

" These progressions of Marquis Spinola, together 
with his daily proceedings, made the United Provinces 
shrewdly afraid, that they should at last lose Ostend. A 
consultation was therefore held, by their chief command- 
ers, how the town might be best preserved, — which might 
be done by two ways ; either by some important diver- 



SIEGE OF OSTEND. 305 

sion, or by raising the siege by main force. The second 
way brought with it such difficulties, that the first was cho- 
sen. Wherefore, they resolved to besiege Sluys ; a town 
which likewise stood upon the sea, and was of so great 
consequence, that it did rather exceed than come shori 
of Ostend, in importance. 

Sluys was accordingly besieged and taken. It afford- 
ed great satisfaction to the Flemish, that, in three months' 
time, and with the loss of so little blood, they had made 
a greater acquisition than that of Ostend, which would 
cost above three years' expense of time, and an infinity 
of Spanish gold and blood, if it could hold out no longer. 
But, though Spinola made an unsuccessful attempt to re- 
lieve Sluys, he could not be prevailed on to break up the 
siege of Ostend, and his troops were infilamed the more, 
by a desire of counterbalancing that loss. So that, at 
last, after much slaughter, they won the ditch, and the 
first line of fortifications ; but, meanwhile, a new one had 
been raised, by those within. 

" Sluys was just then lost; and it was feared that 
Count Maurice would come to the rehef of Ostend. 
The Catholics being, therefore, so much the more moved, 
and Spinola being again returned, it is not to be ex- 
pressed with what fervor they fell to their works, on all 
sides. The greatest progress was made towards the old 
town of Ostend ; because, when they should have won 
that, they might easily hinder the entrance into the chan- 
nel, by the mouth whereof succor was brought from the 
sea ; and, as the new town was much commanded by the 
old, therefore Spinola did the more re-enforce his batter- 
ies, assauhs, mines, and all his other most efficacious 
works, on that side, than on any other ; nor was it long, 
ere the Cathohcs had almost wholly taken it. 

" They likewise advanced, after the same manner, 
against the new fortifications, so that the besieged had 
no place, whither to retreat ; wherefore, wanting ground 
to defend, when they most abounded in all things for de- 
fence, they were at last forced to surrender the town ; 
which was done about the middle of September, upon 
the most honorable conditions that they could desire, 
26=^ 



306 GREAT EVENTS. 

Count Maurice was often minded to attempt the succor 
by main force ; but, considering that he was to enter into 
an enemy's country, amongst strong and well-guarded 
towns, and that he should meet with men that were very 
ready to fight, he thought it not proper, after his prosperous 
success at Sluys, to hazard falling into some misfortune, 
as, upon such an occasion, he might peradventure do, 
and therefore he forebore to do it. It was a remarkable 
thing, to see so many soldiers march out of a town ; for 
there were above four thousand of them, all strong and 
healthful, they having enjoyed great plenty of all things 
in Ostend, by reason of their continual succors. So that, 
besides great store of artillery, there was found in the 
town such abundance of victuals, ammunition, and of 
whatsoever else may be imagined, for the defence of a 
royal town, that the like was never known to be in any 
other place. 

" Thus ended the siege of Ostend ; very memorable, 
doubtless, in itself, but much more, in consideration of 
the great expense of moneys and time, which the winning 
and losing of it cost. The siege continued above three 
years ; in which time, the prevailing opinion was, that 
there died, by the sword and by sickness, above a hun- 
dred thousand men, between the one and the other side ; 
whereby it may be conceived, what proportionable moneys 
and other things were therein spent. The town having 
been yielded up, the Archduke and Infanta had the curi- 
osity to go and see it, and went from Gaunt thither, where 
they found nothing but a misshapen chaos of earth, which 
hardly retained any show of the first Ostend. Ditches 
filled up ; curtains beaten down ; bulwarks torn in pieces ; 
half-moons, flanks, and redoubts, so confused one with 
another, that they could not be distinguished ; nor could 
it be known on which side the attack, or on which the 
defence, was ; yet they would know all, and receive the 
whole relation, from Spinola's own mouth. He repre- 
sented, in full, the last posture of the siege ; he show- 
ed the Spaniards' quarters, and those of the Italians, 
as also those of each other nation. He related, how 
stoutly they contended, who should outvie one another in 



SIEGE OF OSTEND. 307 

pains-taking ; on which part, the greatest resistance was 
made, within ; where the dispute was most difficuh, with- 
out ; where they wanted ground to retreat unto ; where 
the enemy used their utmost power ; and where, at last, 
the town was surrendered. The Archduke saw the great 
platform, the great dike, and whatsoever else, fit to excite 
curiosity, might be suggested by the unusual character of 
that siege ; but not whhout the Infanta's great compas- 
sion, and even tears, by looking upon the horror of those 
parts where the sword, fire, sea, and earth, may be said 
to have conspired together, in making so long and so 
miserable a destruction of Christians. They both did 
very much commend Spinola, and also thanked the rest 
of the commanders, who had deserved well in that enter- 
prise. Nor did they less congratulate the inferior officers 
and soldiers, who had exposed themselves, most, to those 
dangers." 



308 GREAT EVENTS. 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE AR- 
MADA, IN 1588. 

BY JOHN STOWE. 

The contest between the Protestants and Roman Cath- 
olics had divided all Europe into two great hostile mas- 
ses. An active counter-reformation, as it has been called 
by a distinguished historian, had begun, on the part ot" 
the Roman Catholics. Many eminent men, and whole 
corporate societies, within the Roman Catholic Church, 
were actively engaged in reforming abuses, and bringing 
back to its folds those who had been separated by the 
Reformation ; while several princes strove to accomplish 
the same object, by forcible and violent measures. The 
most prominent among these was Philip the Second, King 
of Spain, a morose bigot, both in religion and politics ; 
cruel, and without faith, whenever he conceived it to be 
necessary, and apparently shut out, by cold selfishness, 
from any friendly fellow-feeling for his kind. The Nether- 
lands, dependent upon his crown, had risen against him. 
It was partly his wanton tyranny, and partly the Protes- 
tant spirit which was fast spreading in those countries, and 
his denial of any liberty of conscience, which had brought 
about this memorable and great event, of vast importance 
in the history of civilized man. Elizabeth of England, a 
princess of great wisdom, and who rested her power, in a 
great measure, upon Protestantism, had aided the Protes- 
tant insurgents of the Lov/ Countries. This circumstance, 
as well as the fact that England was the most powerful of 
the united Protestant states, and therefore the greatest po- 
litical prop of the Protestant religion, or that it might easi- 
ly become such, made her an object of peculiar attention 
to Philip and the Pope. They considered, indeed, that 
nothing would be more conducive to the general reestab- 
lishment of the Roman Catholic religion, than the reduc- 
tion of that Queen to a state of dependence, or her de- 
thronement, which, probably, was no less passionately 
desired, on account of the severe laws against Roman 
Catholics, in England. Elizabeth, on her part, feared 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA.- 309 

the increase of the power of Spain. For this reason, she 
had aided the Netherlanders. She doubtless considered 
an open war, between England and Spain, as unavoidable, 
and had suffered Sir Francis Drake, in April, 1587, to de- 
stroy, in the port of Cadiz, a considerable fleet of the Span- 
iards. Philip of Spain, after serious deliberations in his 
council, had resolved to reduce the power of England ; 
and, if possible, to conquer her. For this purpose, a fleet 
was armed, of such magnitude, that it was believed to be 
sure of success, and was called the Invincible Armada. 
In the port of Lisbon, alone, were collected about one 
hundred and fifty sail of vessels, with two thousand six 
hundred and twenty cannons, eight tliousand sailors, and 
tv/enty thousand soldiers, not reckoning the smaller ves- 
els and their crews. The fleet was well provided with 
all necessary equipments ; and monks and priests were 
not wanting on board, to preach the Roman Catholic faith 
in the conquered country. Other armaments took place 
to join this. Pope Sixtus the Fifth had once more order- 
ed the dethronement of Elizabeth, and anathematized her ; 
he had charged Philip to conquer her kingdom ; and had 
called upon every one to deliver her, alive or dead, into 
his hands. 

Elizabeth was well aware of the greatness of her dan- 
ger ; but never did she rise higher, or show herself more 
worthy of her throne, than at this period. Her Roman 
Catholic subjects too, forgetting all religious animosities, 
and considering the conquest of their native country the 
greatest of all disgraces, flocked to her standards, as eager- 
ly as the Protestants. From the highest to the lowest ranks, 
they manifested a truly English spirit, and promptly offered 
their means toward defraying the expenses of the war. 
Thus the hope of Philip, that England would be torn by 
religious factions, while he was attacking her from with- 
out, was happily foiled. A British army, of great number, 
was kept ready to receive the enemy, upon his landing on 
the EngUsh shore. A large body of troops was encamped 
at Tilbury, a place at the estuary of the river Thames, to 
protect the capital of the Kingdom. Thither, Elizabeth 
proceeded, and harangued the troops, in a speech, which 
Sir James Mackintosh calls " one of the most stirring spec- 
imens in existence, of the rhetoric of the camp." The 
interesting nature of the occasion, and the importance of 
this branch of rhetoric, which is necessarily more national 



310 • GREAT EVENTS. 

than any other, because it aims at producing, upon a large 
mass of the effective force of the nation, a direct and pow- 
erful impression, with a view to immediate action, induce 
me to give the address of Queen Elizabeth. I shall insert 
it in Stowe's account, in its proper place. 

What would have become of England, if she had been 
conquered, and how this calamitous event would have af- 
fected Europe, no human mind, of course, is able to see ; 
but it would seem certain, that England could never have 
been kept, for any length of time, under the Spanish sway. 
It is impossible to retain in subjection a distant depen- 
dency, if it be populous, and if the people are animated by 
a manly spirit, love of independence, and devotion to their 
endangered or persecuted religion. But the fearful strug- 
gles, necessary to expel such an enemy from the country, 
or perhaps to extirpate him within it, could not have pass- 
ed, it may be safely said, without leaving a deep impres- 
sion upon the national character of the English, or perhaps 
changing it, in some essential traits. Nor can it be doubt- 
ed, that, had England been conquered, the fate of the 
Netherlands would have been far different from that which 
history now records ; and that the all-important relation 
in which those two countries were placed, at the later pe- 
riod of William the Third, could never have subsisted. 
No human eye can see, how England should have been 
able, under these different supposed circumstances, to 
form that nucleus of constitutional law and civil liberty, 
which was to outlast the period of concentrated and abso- 
lute royal power upon the continent of Europe, and from 
which the European race was to receive again its renewed 
impulse in the career of constitutional liberty. Every one, 
therefore, who values civil liberty, will attribute the great 
victory achieved over the Spaniards, to Him, to whom 
the Dutch attributed it, when they ordered a medal to be 
struck, commemorating this great event, with this scroll 

" AFFLAVIT DEUS ET DISSIPATI SUNT." 

God breathed, and they were dispersed.* 

We ought not to pass, in silence, the elevated manner 

* This inscription is not unfrequently cited, as that of an English 
medal. Van Campen, in his History of the Netherlands, says, that 
the Dutch medal is to be found, with several others, in Van Loon, 
Nederlandsche Historiepenningen. It matters little, to whom the de- 
vice belongs, so that both were animated with the spirit which it; 
expresses. 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 311 

in which Philip received the news of this disaster and the 
commanders of this unfortunate expedition. He remained 
collected, gave orders for the relief of the sick, the wound- 
ed, and the orphans, and said : "I armed the fleet against 
England, not against the fury of the sea ; and I bow to 
the decrees of God."* 

John Stowe, or Stow, an annalist at the time of Eliza- 
beth, and from whom the following account is taken, was 
the son of a merchant-tailor, in London, and born in 1525. 
About the year 1560, he formed the design of composing 
annals of the English history ; and to this object sacrificed 
his trade, travelling about, on foot, to collect materials. 
After having experienced many difficulties, in maintaining 
himself, while pursuing his favorite studies, he was sus- 
pected of Roman Catholicism ; and a number of Roman 
Catholic books being found in his house, when it was 
searched by the order of the Bishop of London, the char- 
acter of a disaffected person was fixed upon him. His 
own brother made use of this suspicion, for the purpose 
of taking away his life, by preferring one hundred and 
forty articles against him, before the ecclesiastical com- 
mission ; but the infamous character of the witnesses 
saved Stowe. His first book, ' A Summarie of Englishe 
Chronicles,'! had then already been printed. His ' Sur- 
vey of London,' &.C., appeared in 1598, and has been sev- 
eral times reprinted, forming, as Rees says, the basis of 
all the subsequent histories of the metropolis. He never 
was able to publish his large Chronicle, or History of 
England, for which he had been collecting materials for 
forty years. He only lived to print an abstract of it, in 
the year 1600, entitled ' Flores Historiarum, or Annals of 
England.' Edmund Howes published, from his papers, a 
folio volume, entitled ' Stow's Chronicle.' Stowe, after the 
death of his patron. Archbishop Parker, in 1575, was re- 
duced to extreme poverty, and finally sunk into a state of 
wretched destitution. He petitioned the Lord Mayor and 
Aldermen of London for a pittance, stating, that, for twenty- 
five years, he had been employed in compiling and publish* 
ing divers summaries, recording the memorable acts of fa- 
mous citizens, but he received nothing. At a later period, 
when poor Stowe, now in his seventy-eighth year, applied 

* Khevenhiller iii. 640. Strada ii. 565. 
t First printed in 1565. 



312 GREAT EVENTS. 

to the King for some assistance, merely to protect him 
against extreme want, James the First granted him a li- 
cense to repair to churches or other places, to receive the 
gratuities and charitable benevolence of well-disposed peo- 
ple. I do not know whether we are to understand this as 
an actual license to beg, as the King's beadsmen were 
licensed beggars, in Scotland ; or whether Stovve was au- 
thorized to receive the money collected at church by the 
proper officers. We should adopt the latter supposition, 
were it not that the King can hardly be presumed to have 
made such a disposition of the money which, no doubt, by 
custom or law, was already appropriated for parochial pur- 
poses. We therefore incline to the first view ; though 
the meanness of the royal act is greater than we are pre- 
pared to find, even in James the First. However, the 
City of London was no more charitable toward him, than 
was the King ; and Stowe died, oppressed by poverty and 
painful diseases, in the year 1605. The reader will soon 
perceive, that the following account is given in such a 
style, and with such a selection of words, as prevent us 
from being absorbed by the subject, because we are per- 
petually reminded of the Author. 

Stowe was neither possessed of any great degree of nat- 
ural taste, nor had he attained to that greatest and most 
perfect refinement, as a writer, which consists in being en- 
tirely natural and easy, so that the reader is not once re- 
minded of the author's skill or want of skill, except when 
reflecting upon his power of keeping the mind wholly oc- 
cupied with the subject, long after the perusal of the com- 
position. 

"Although this present yeere, 1587, were but as 
the vigil of the next ensuing yeere, 1588, concerning 
which yeere, many ancient and strange prophecies, in 
divers languages, and many excellent astronomers, of 
sundry nations, had, in very plain termes, foretold, that 
the yeere 1588 should be most fatall and ominous unto 
all estates, concluding in these words, or to the like ef- 
fect ; namely, ' And if in that yeere, the world doe not 
perish and utterly decay, yet empires all, and kingdomes 
after, shall ; and no man to raise himself shall know no 
way, and that for ever after it shall be called the ' Yeere 
of Wonder,' ' &c., yet, for divers yeeres past, by reason 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 313 

of the aforesaid generall predictions, all Europe stood at 
gaze, vehemently expecting more strange and terrible al- 
terations, both in imperiall and regall estates, than ever 
happened, since the world began. Which sayd universall 
terror was this present yeere half abated, and plainely 
discovered that England was the maine subject of that 
time's operation : for, albeit, the Spanish provision, for 
three yeeres past, were discerned to be wonderous great, 
for speciall service, by sea and land, yet used they all 
possible secrecy concerning their intent, until they were 
fully furnished. 

" The Queene and councell, for two yeeres space, 
caused the ministers to manifest unto their congregations 
the furious purpose of the Spanish King, Dukes of Par- 
ma and Guyse, with the dangerous dissimulation of the 
French King, by whose palnes and industry the whole 
communality became of one hearte and mind, and began 
to retaine a stronger opinion touching the Spaniards set 
tied resolution for the invasion of England, than either 
Queene or councell. The Enghsh nation were so com- 
bined in heart, that I here confesse I want art lively to 
expresse the sympathy of love between the subjects and 
the Sovereigne. 

" This yeere, 1587, being fully spent, and each man's 
mind, more forward than the Spring, of infinite desire to 
grapple with the enemie, after many musters, both of 
horse and foote, and due survey of Englands chiefest 
strength, to wit, navigation, captalnes, commanders, 
leaders, and fit officers, were appointed unto their severall 
charges, over all which land forces, Robert, Earle of 
Leicester, was lord generall, and Henry, Lord Houns- 
don, was generall for the Queenes person. 

"Cities, counties, townes, and villages, the cinqueports, 
and all other havens of England, manifested as great for- 
wardnesse, in their zealous love and dutie, as either sub- 
jects could perform, or prince expect. To single out 
the admirable dexterity and bounty of any one particular 
place, or people, were apparent wrong to all, yet, for a 
taste of trueth in all, thus much may bee sayd for Lon- 
don. After the councell had demaunded what the citty 

27 G. E 



314 GREAT EVENTS. 

would doe in their Prince and countryes right, the Lord 
maior and aldermen humbly besought their honours to set 
downe what their wisedomes thought requisite, in such a 
case : the lords demanded five thousand men and fifteene 
ships ; the city craved two days respite for answere, which 
was granted, and then entreated their lordships, in signe 
of their perfect love and loyaltie to their Prince and 
country, kindly to accept tenne thousand men and thirty 
shippes, amply furnished. And even as London, Lon- 
don-like, gave precedent, the whole kingdome kept true 
ranke and equipage. 

" The whole nobility, most ncbly like themselves, and 
like planets of the higher orbes, in kind conjunction knit 
iheir hearts in one, whose princely valour equalling their 
love, assured their Soveraigne of triumphant victory." 

* The English fleet was divided into two squadrons 
one under Lord Henry Seymour, of sixteen ships, ap- 
pointed to watch the narrow seas, and prevent communi- 
cation between the Armada and the Duke of Parma, then 
commanding in Flanders ; the other stationed on the west- 
ern coast, to meet their formidable enemy, upon his first 
approach to the British shore, composed of vessels of all 
sizes and descriptions, in number from eighty-five to one 
hundred. Lord Charles Howard, High Admiral of Eng- 
land, commanded in chief ; Drake, a name of fear to the 
Spaniard, was Vice-admiral ; and, among many lords 
and gent)emen, who held subordinate commands, the well- 
known seamen, Hawkins and Frobisher, filled worthy 
place and trust. The trainbands, or militia, of the mari- 
time counties, being summoned to be ready for service, 
on their own coasts, at the earliest warning, two strong 
armies were collected from the interior, one of two thou- 
sand horse and thirty-four thousand foot, for the defence 
of the Queen's person, and as a disposable force ; the 
other was encamped at Tilbury ; and the opposite town 
of Gravesend being fortified, it was proposed to connect 
the two banks, and shut up the river by a bridge of boats. 

* The passages, not within the quotation marks, are the additions 
of the Author of « Historical Parallels,' already several times men- 
tioned. 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 315 

"It was a pleasant sight, to behold the soldiers, as 
they marched towards Tilbury, their cheerfull counte- 
nances, courageous words and gestures, dauncing and 
leaping, wheresoever they came ; and in the campe, their 
most felicity was hope of fight with the enemy, where oft- 
times divers rumours ran of their foes approach, and that 
present battell would bee given them ; then were they as 
joyfull at such newes, as if lusty giants were to run a 
race ; in this campe, were many old soldiers and right 
brave commanders, who, although their greatest force did 
never exceede the number of three thousand horse and 
fifteen thousand foot, yet there were ready, in all places, 
many thousands morej to backe and second them, and it 
was found good policy not on the sudden to keepe too 
great an army in one place." 

" The Queen, now advanced in years," — these are 
the words of Mackintosh, — "but unworn by the agita- 
tions of a long reign, displayed the chivalrous resolution 
of youth and manhood ; and, by displaying, inspired it. 
She visited the troops, rode on horseback between the 
lines, and addressed to the army at Tilbury one of the 
most stirring specimens in existence, of the rhetoric of 
the camp. 

" ' My loving people ! We have been persuaded, by 
some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we 
commit ourselves to armed multitudes, for fear of treach- 
ery ; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust 
my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear; I have 
always so behaved myself, that, under God, I have placed 
my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and 
good will of my subjects ; and therefore I am come 
amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recre- 
ation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and 
heat of the battle, to live or die amongst you all, to lay 
down, for my God, and for my kingdoms, and for my 
people, my honor and my blood, even in the dust. I 
know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman ; 
but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king 
of England, too ; and think foul scorn that Parma, or 
Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade 



316 GREAT EVENTS. 

the borders of my realm ; to which, rather than any dis- 
honor shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms ; I 
myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every 
one of your virtues in the field. 1 know, already, for 
your forwardness you have deserved rewards and crowns ; 
and we do assure you, on the word of a prince, they 
shall be duly paid you. In the mean time, my heuten- 
ant-general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince 
commanded a more noble or worthy subject ; not doubt- 
ing, but, by your obedience to my general, by your con- 
cord in the camp, and your valor in the field, we shall 
shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my 
God, of my kingdoms, and of my people.' " — We now 
continue with the extract from Stowe. 

" Thus England being in all points furnished and in 
good readiness for their own defence, I will speake a 
word or two concerning the Hollanders, then leave them 
awhile, and report of their adversaries estate and prepa- 
ration. 

"The Hollanders "came in roundly, with threescore 
sayle, brave shippes of war, fierce and full of spleene, not 
so much for Englands ayd, as in just occasion of their own 
defence, knowing the originall and ground of this hostility 
to proceed from themselves, with thirty yeeres continued 
sharpe w'arre. These men, foreseeing the greatnesse of 
the danger that might ensue, if the Spaniards should 
chance to winne the day, and get the mastery over them, 
in due regard whereof their manly courage was inferior to 
none. 

''The King of Spaine, after three yeeres deliberate 
advice, was three yeeres preparing this twofold army in 
Spain, whereof he made Alphonso Perez, Duke of Me- 
dina Sidonia, chiefs generall, and Don Martino Recaldo, 
of Cantabria, vice-admirall : which army, by the ayde of 
the clergy, the princes of Italy, as well friends as feoda- 
ries, the seven kingdomes in Spain, the entire state of 
Portugall, together with the help of mariners, pylots, mu- 
niton, tackling, and victuall, from the northwest parts of 
Europe, was now fully furnished, about the middle of 
May, riding at anchor in the river Tagus, neare Lisbon, 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 317 

consisting cf one hundred and twenty-eight vessels for 
warre, namely, carricks, galleons, argoseys, and four gal- 
liasses, two thousand five hundred and fifty-five pieces of 
great ordinance, twelve thousand mariners, and twenty 
thousand land-soldiers, besides voluntaries, vitlers, hospi- 
tals, and shippes of artificers to attend them. When the 
King beheld this mighty host, observing well their match- 
less strength, and plenteous provision, for sea and land, 
as well for others as themselves, to wit, oyle, wine, rice, 
salt, biskit, horses, mules, carts, carriages, powder, shot, 
saddles, apparell, pickaxes, and shovels, hee sayd, it 
might well be called the Invincible Army. It was ever 
meant this army should have been at the Groyne* before 
this time, to have taken the full advantage of the yeere, 
for so the Dukes of Guise and Parma did expect, whose 
preparations, on all points, were in a better readinesse, at 
the beginning of June, according to the Kings appoint- 
ment, than they were afterward ; for, seeing the Sommer 
half spent, they doubted whether the King would send his 
army this yeere, or no ; but the King could not help it, 
for that his ships were furnished in divers ports, and 
through contrary winds could not be united until this pres- 
ent, so as they were constrained to anchor at Lisbon, 
where they- should have hoysed sail at the Groyne ; to 
wit, about the beginning of June." 

The terms of naval architecture just used require some 
explanation. Carracks, argosies, and galleons, were 
names for the largest species of sailing vessels in use. 
Some idea of their size may be formed, from the dimen- 
sions of a Portuguese vessel, captured in 1592. Her 
burden was sixteen hundred tons ; she carried thirty-two 
pieces of brass ordnance, and between six and seven hun- 
dred passengers ; and was built with decks, seven stories 
high. She is said to have been in length, from the fig- 
ure-head to the stern, one hundred and sixty-five feet ; in 
breadth near forty-seven. Carrack was a name given, by 
the Portuguese, to the vessels built for the Brazil and 
East- Indian trade : their capacity was chiefly in their 

* Corunna. 
27* 



318 



GREAT EVENTS. 



depth. Galleasses were the largest vessels impelled by- 
oars, and differed from galleys only in their superior size, 
and in the arrangement of the artillery. 

A minute detail of the number and force of the Span- 
ish fleet is given in Charnock's History of Marine Archi- 
tecture. It appears, that the vessels classed as galleons, 
mounted from fifty to twenty, or even so few as fifteen, 
cannon, and the largest of them were from one thousand 
to sixteen hundred tons burden. The following sum- 
mary will convey some notion of the size and equipment 
of the vessels in use, and show the immense superiority of 
the Spanish over the English force. 



Tonnage. e^^,-. 


Vessels. ^"°^' 


Sailors. 


Soldiers. 


7,739 Portuguese ) 
squadron 5 


10 


2 


389 


1,242 


3,086 


5,861 Biscayan . . 


10 


4 


302 


906 


2,117 


8,054 Castilian . . 


15 


2 


474 


1,793 


2,924 


8,692 Andalusian . 


10 


1 


315 


776 


2,365 


7,192 Guypuiscoan 


11 


4 


296 


608 


2,120 


8,632 Italian . . 


10 





319 


844 


2,792 


10,860 Medina . . 





24 


466 


930 


3,570 


2,090 Mendoza* 





25 


204 


746 


1,481 


59,120 


66 


62 


2,765 


7,845 


20,455 

Slaves. 


Four Neapolitan Galleasses 


.} 


200 


477 


. 744 1,200 


mounting . . 50 gun 


s eacf 








Four Portuguese, 50 *' 


" 




200 


424 


440 888 








400 


901 


1,184 2,088 








2,765 


7,845 


20,455 



3,165 8,746 21,639 

The Enghsh force is less minutely given : numerically, 
it was superior to the Spanish, for it consisted of one hun- 
dred and seventy-five vessf^ls, besides others classed as 
victuallers ; but the inferiority of the several ships, in 
size and force, will appear from a comparison of their 
tonnage and the number of their crews. The largest of 
the royal navy was of eleven hundred tons : the collective 
burden of the fleet amounted only to twenty-nine thousand 
seven hundred and forty-four tons, barely more than half 

•This is the classification of the provinces, as given by Charnock, 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 319 

that of the Spanish navy, and their crews consisted of 
fourteen thousand five hundred and one men, opposed to 
a numerical force more than double their number. The 
number of guns, and weight of metal, of the English fleet, 
we have not been able to obtain. In this respect, the dis- 
proportion was probably even greater. The reader will 
observe, that we have not taken into account, the Dutch 
squadron, which did good service in blocking up, in their 
harbors, the forces collected by the Duke of Parma, but 
never were opposed to the Spanish fleet. 

The Armada, in its passage from Lisbon to the Groyne, 
was considerably injured, by stress of weather, which still 
further delayed it ; and, June and July being almost spent, 
and no appearance of the enemy, it began to be thought, 
that, for that year, at least, the Spaniards would not 
come. Many of the volunteers, therefore, being indiffer- 
ently provided for keeping the sea, dispersed themselves 
into different harbors, and the Queen, economical, even 
to parsimony, countenanced this imprudence by recalling 
from the High- Admiral four of her great ships. Mean- 
while, the Duke of Parma had assembled, in Flanders, 
thirty thousand foot and five thousand horse, and collect- 
ed, in his ports, three hundred and forty flat-bottomed ves- 
sels, great and small, to land his men readily upon an 
open strand, with store of all necessaries to make good 
his descent, even in the face of an enemy. The plan of 
the campaign was this : the Duke of Medina was order- 
ed to steer direct to Flanders, place himself under the 
command of the Duke of Parma, who, under convoy of 
the Armada, should disembark in Kent or Essex, as near 
to London or to the camp as he could. It was also 
meant, that the Duke of Guise should first have landed 
in the west, under protection of the Spanish navy, as it 
passed along, to effect a diversion in favor of the real at- 
tack ; while, after the arrival of the Duke of Parma, the 
fleet, passing northward, was appointed to land in York- 
shire twelve thousand men. 

" The Spanish navy having refreshed themselves at 
Groyne, after twenty-eight days rest, set forward, for 
England, about the eleventh of July, in the greatest 



320 GREAT K VENTS 

pompe that eye ever beheld, matchlesse in state, com- 
maunding their passage wheresoever they came, exceed- 
ding far the force of those two thousand warhke sayle of 
great Symeramis,* or the like number at commaund of 
the Egyptian Cleopatra, or those twelve hundred well- 
prepared ships, raised by Charles of Fraunce, with like 
full purpose of invasion, for revenge upon King Richard 
the Second, for dammage done by his graundsire, Ed- 
ward the Third, in his French conquest ; but this proud 
navy hath more skilfull guides, and, in the overweening 
of her strength, sets forward boldly to perform her charge, 
(though in stealing wise,) as if necessity hadde constrain- 
ed them to take advantage of home-bred traytors, or am- 
bitious rebels, risen against their state, and not like soul- 
diers, sent in cause of just hostihtie, to encounter with an 
honourable enemy, without due summons, or defiance 
unto armes, according to the law of nations. 

" The nineteenth of July, the English Admirall, upon 
direct knowledge of the enemies approach, sends speedy 
summons unto all the English fleet, who still retained 
their former courage. The Spaniards, by this time, 
were entered the mouth of the narrow seas, whose num- 
ber, state, and strength, being well observed by the Lord 
Admirall, and rightly considered, that it was now no time 
to dally or flatter in so imminent daunger, in depth of hu- 
mane judgement, and discharge of duty to his Prince and 
country, instantly addressed his letters, by his brother-in- 
law, Sir Edward Hobby, unto her Majesty, signifying 
the great difference in power betwixt the English and the 
Spaniard, and therefore seeing the English navall forces 
far inferior to the Spanish army, advised the Queene to 
send more ayde to the sea, and to make ready the chiefe 
strength of her land forces : at which newes, the Queene 
forthwith commands more ships to the sea, whereupon, 

* This fleet of Serairamis is probably about as real as Shakspeare's 
seacoast of Bohemia. What the amount of Cleopatra's fleet might 
be, we do not know ; but at Actium, she had only sixty ships. In 
the last example, Stowe is within bounds. Froissart says, that 
one thousand two hundred and eighty-seven ships were prepared on 
this occasion. What sort of cock-boats they were is another quea 
tion. 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 321 

yet in voluntary manner, the Earles of Oxford, Northum 
berland, and Cumberland, Sir Thomas Cecill, Sir Rob- 
ert Cecill, Sir Waller Rawleigh, Master Thomas Ger- 
rard, Master Arthur Gorge, Sir Thomas Vavasor, and 
many other honourable personages, were suddenly em- 
barked, committing themselves unto the presant chaunce 
of warre. 

" Gentlemen and yeomen of sundry shires, bordering 
on the sea, knowing many of the English shippes to bee 
very weakly furnished with victuall and munition, out of 
their singular zeale and loyalty, sent cheerefully such pro- 
vision as they either could make, or was provided for 
their families ; yea, such was the integrity of the Eng- 
lish, as the recusants offered their service, and were de- 
sirous to take their fortune with the common souldiers. 

" The twenty-first of July, the Spaniards came as 
high as Plimmouth, where divers English shippes lay fast 
in harbor, the rest gave charge upon the enemie ; the 
Armado then daraines * itselfe into the fashion of the 
crescent moone ; each side prepares themselves speedily 
to fight with braves and bravadoes, their shrill sounding 
trumpets, and their ratling drums, lent mutuall courage unto 
both batalions, and loud thundring canons send swift mes- 
sengers of death : both armies strive to get advantage of 
the wind, but the English, beeing much more quick and 
yare, winne their desire, and Englands Admirall, in per- 
son, gave the onset, and for two houres space maintained 
a valiant fight, untill night drew on, and, wanting forty of 
the English fleete, which, as yet, could not by any meanes 
come unto their ayde, they tackt about. 

'' The next day, the English navy beeing well en- 
creased, gave charge and chase upon the enemie, squad 
ron after squadron, seconding each other like swift horse 
men, that could nimbly come andgoe, and fetch the wind 
for most advantage. Now begins the furious fight, on 
either part, and manly soldiers firmly keepe their stand 
upon the starboord and larboord side, and, as occasion 
serves, some cry, keepe aloofe ; others, roome, ho ! if the 
seas were calme, it serves the English well to charge upon 

* Draws up for battle. 



322 GREAT EVENTS. 

the greatest bulwarke of the Spanish fleete ; and then their 
galiiasses, as sergeants of the band, would issue foorth, 
sometimes to succour their distressed friends, and other- 
whiles with purpose to surprise such English as they saw 
becalmed, whose kindnesse oft the English with their 
broadsides would requite, sending their dole until the 
Spaniards blood ran out at scupper-hole ; but if the wind 
grew bigge, and billowes played aloft, then the Spaniards, 
with their lofty towers, make full account to stem the 
English comming in their way : sometimes, the English, 
in their eager fight, fell foule upon the daunger of their 
ennemies, and so continued from the evening unto the 
breake of day : the Lord High Admirall himselfe was 
one whole night within the maine battell of the Spanislr 
army : both navies showed great valour, in their dail}* 
fight, which commonly continued within the reach of mus- 
ket-shot, and many times at push of pike, without inter- 
mission, save only when, for want of wind, they were 
restrained : the English chiefetaines ever sought to single 
out the great commaunders of the Spanish hoste, whose 
loftie castles held great scorne of their encounter : but 
whilest both armies were thus conjoyned, Don Pedro de 
Valdez, a chiefe commaunder of the army, fell fowle up- 
on one of his fellowes, and brake his foremast, who, being 
maimed and left behind, lay, like a stiffe elephant, in the 
open field, beset with eager hounds, who, being commaund- 
ed to yeelde, sayd, he would yeelde to none but his equal, 
cjnd asked in whose squadron hee was fallen ; they an- 
swered into Drakes squadron ; then he sayd, fetch him, 
for I will yeelde to none but to a commaunder like myself. 
Drake, being returned from chasing certain Easterlings, 
Don Pedro beganne to articulate ; but Drake perempto- 
rily told him, it was now no time to stand upon tearmes of 
composition, whereupon he yeelded ; having caused all 
their jewels, plate, money, apparell, with whatever else 
their present state could any way aiford, to be layed open, 
to prevent the fury of the English, when they came 
aboord. 

" After that, another galleon, by negligence was set 
on fire, and therewith consumed to the lower decke, un- 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 323 

der which lay store of gunpowder, never touched. The 
lord Thomas Howard, pittying their extream misery, 
but not being able to stay on boord, through extreamity 
of stench, caused the remainder of those scorched men 
to be set on shore. 

" The Spanish navie, for sixe dayes space, having 
endured many sharpe fights and fierce assaults, coasting 
and discoasting from England to the coast of Fraunce, 
and from thence to England, and then to Fraunce again, 
the seaven and twentieth of July, towards night, they 
cast anchor nigh to Callis Roade ; the English hkewise 
rid at anchor very neere unto them. 

'* Now rides the Armada at her wished post, unto 
whom the Duke of Parma sends present word, that, 
within three days, their forces should conjoyne, and with 
first advantage of wind and tyde, transport their armies 
to the English coast ; in meane space they would person- 
ally meet, and then determine betweene themselves what 
w^as further to be done. 

'' The Flemings, Walloons, and the French, came 
thicke and threefolde to behold the fleete, admiring the 
exceeding greatnesse of their shippes, and warlike order ; 
the greatest kept the outside next the enemie, like strong 
castles, fearing no assault, the lesser placed in the mid- 
dle ward : fresh victuals straight were brought aboord, 
captains and cavaliers, for their money, might have what 
they would, who gave the French so liberally, as within 
twelve houres an egge was worth sixe pence, besides 
thanks. 

'' Whilest this lusty navie, hke a demi-conqueror, ryd 
thus at anchor, the Spanish faction, in sundry nations, 
had divulged that England was subdued, the Queene ta- 
ken and sent prisoner over the Alpes to Rome, where, 
barefoote, shee should make her humble reconciliation, &c. 

"In Paris, Don Barnardino de Mendoza, ambassador 
from Spaine, entred into our lady church, (Notre Dame,) 
advancing his rapier in his right hand, and, with a loud 
voyce, cryed, ' Victorie, Victorie,' and it was forthwith 
bruited that England was vanquished. But the next day, 
when trueth was known of the Armadoes overthrow, 



324 GREAT EVENTS. 

certain pages of adverse faction unto Spain, in bitter 
scoffing manner, humbly prayed his lordships letters 
unto the Duke of Parma, in favor of their good fortune, 
to bestow on them some odde wast cast townes or villa- 
ges, as London, Canterbury, or York, or so, whereat 
Mendoza, being much dismayed, obscured himself, not 
daring to show his face. 

" France, Italy, and Germany, were very doubtful of 
the English state, and in those places the English mer- 
chants well perceived their double eye, one while smyl- 
ing on Spaines behalf, and then upon the English casting 
a fleering looke. 

" The Queenes navy having well observed the mar- 
tiall order and invincible strength of the Spaniards, and 
that it was not possible to remove them by force of fight, 
and therewithall considered the present purpose of thp 
Duke of Parma, and their owne imminent daunger, omit- 
ted no time, but according to the present necessity, the 
Generall, with his councell of warre, concluded to make 
their first strategem by fire, and thereupon, the twenty- 
eighth of July, they emptied eight of their basest barkes, 
and put therein much combustible matter, which, in the 
evening, were subtilly set on fire, and with advantage 
both of wind and tyde, guided within the reach of canon 
shotte, before the Spaniards could discern the same ; and 
then, the flame grew fierce, with sudden terror to the 
enemie, who thought these floates to have been like the 
sundry workes of wildfire lately made to break the bridge 
at Antwerpe, in which feare, they all amazed, with 
shrikes and loud outcries, to the great astonishment of 
the neere inhabitants, crying, ' The fire of Antwerpe, the 
fire of Antwerpe ;' some cut cables, others let the haw- 
sers slippe, and happiest they who could first bee gone, 
though few could telle what course to take. 

" The first whereof, that ran aground, was a galliasse, 
hard by Callis walls, where the English freely tooke the 
common spoyle, until they began to take the ordinance 
and to fire the shippe, whereat the governor being sore 
displeased, knowing the royalty thereof to be appropriate 
to himselfe, discharged his canons from the citadel, and 



DESTRUCTION OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 325 

drove the English from iheir benefite. The next was a 
galleon, which ranne ashoore in Flanders. Divers oth- 
ers fell into the hands of the Hollanders. The rest en- 
deavored, by all meanes possible, to cast anchor before 
Gravelyn or Dunkerke, hoping still to have supply from 
Parma. 

" But the English forces being now wholly united, 
prevented their enemies conjoyning together, and follow- 
ed their fortunes to the uttermost, continuing four dayes 
fight in more deadly manner than at any time before, and, 
having incessant cause of fresh encouragement, chased 
the Spaniards, from place to place, until they hadde driv- 
en them into a desperate estate ; so as of necessity, as 
well for that the wind was westerly, as that their enemies 
increased, and their own provision of sayles, anchors, and 
cables greatly wasted, resolved to shape their course by 
the Orcades and the north of Ireland. In whose pursuit, 
if the English had been but meanly furnished with victuall 
and munition, they would have brought them all unto 
their mercy ; but when they saw them past the Orcades 
and the Scottish seas, they made retreat. And, if the 
Spaniards had but two days longer continued fight, the 
English must have made a retreat, for want of shot 
and powder, and left the Spaniards to their most advan- 
tage. 

" About the end of September, the Duke of Medina 
arrived in Spaine, being as much discountenanced at 
court, as discouraged in his journey ; and, of all his 
royall navy which he carried foorth, there returned only 
threescore sayle, sore distressed ; the rest whereof, some 
were taken and spoyled by the English, in the narrow 
seas, and some taken by the Hollanders, and some made 
a fayre escape by landing in Scotland : but the most per- 
ished upon the Irish coast, and slaine by Gallowglasses, 
whose generall losse was much lamented through Spaine, 
for that every noted family had lost a kinsman or a neere 
ally. 

" Shippes under the command of the Lord High Ad- 
mirall of England, this yeere, 1588 : 

28 G. E. 



326 GREAT EVENTS. 

Of shippes Royal, .17 

Attended by other warlike ships, 12 

And of lusty pinnaces, 6 

From London there were sent, of brave, warlike ships, . 16 

And of pinnaces, 4 

From Bristow there were sent, of serviceable ships, . . 3 

And one pinnace, 1 

From Barstaple there were sent, in this expedition, of ships, 3 
From Excester there were sent, of ships, 2 

And one pinnace, 1 

From Plimmouth there were sent, of ships well appointed, 7 

And one flye boat, 1 

" There was sent a pinnace of the Lord Admu-alls ; 
also, a pinnace of the Lord Sheffields, and a pinnace of 
Sir WiUiam Winters.* 

" The merchant adventurers of England set foorth, 
at their own proper charges, of lusty ships, — 10. 

'* Ships under the Lord Henry Seymour, in the narrow 
seas : — Of ships royall, accompanied with other very war- 
like ships, well appointed, being in number, — 16. 

" Besides all these, there were many other barkes, 
ships, and pinnaces, sent out of the north parts and west 
parts, as also particularly by divers persons, as by the 
Lord Admirall, by divers other lordes, knights, and gen- 
tlemen, and some others his followers, and by sundry 
other noble and vallerous gentlemen and gallant mar- 
chants, whereof I could never attaine the certaine knowl- 
edge, though I greatly sought it." 

The partisans of the two contending nations differ 
widely, as is to be expected, in their estimates of the loss 
sustained. The victors said, that eighty vessels and 
eighteen thousand men had perished : Strada rates it at 
thirty-two captured and wrecked, and ten thousand men : 
but he acknowledges that the result of the expedition 
filled all Spain with mourning. 

* A pinnace is a small vessel navigated with oars and sails. 



THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA. 327 

THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA, IN 1808. 

BY SOUTHEY AND NAPIER. 

In general, it may be said, that modern sieges have lost 
much of their interest, except for the scientific soldier ; 
because the art of the engineer has reduced them, placing 
external relief out of consideration, almost to certainty. 
Still, there have been sieges, in modern times, in which 
was displayed all tho heroic perseverance that has distin- 
guished the defenders of fortified places, at any previous 
period.* We find a number of them in the history of the 
war, termed the Peninsular War, which was carried on in 
Spain and Portugal, in the beginning of the present century, 
between the English, Spaniards, and Portuguese, on the 
one side, and the French, on the other. In most of them, 
we find remarkable instances, both of military resolution 
and of popular energy ; and it is not easy to make a selec- 
tion of the most interesting of them. For several reasons, 
however, the Siege of Zaragozaf has been selected, and is 
here given. 

The two authors, from whose works the following ac- 
counts are taken, are both living in England. Colonel 
Napier shared in the perils of the war which he has de- 
scribed ; and Mr. Southey is so renowned an author, that 
most readers are, no doubt, in possession of more informa- 
tion respecting him, than could be given here, 

" Zaragoza is situated on the right bank of the Ebro. 
Before its first siege, in 1808, it contained fifty thousand 
inhabitants. It possessed no regular defences, and few 
guns, fit for service, but was surrounded by a low brick 

* At the beginning of the year 1840, a violent attack, made by 
several thousand Arabs, upon about one hundred and sixty French 
soldiers, at a place called Mazagran, in Algiria, was sustained for sev- 
eral days, with a degree of fortitude, which has been acknowledged 
in a signal and lasting manner, both by the King of the French, and 
ihe French Chambers. 

t Zaragoza is a contraction and corruption of the Latin Caesarea 
Augusta. By another corruption, the name of Syracuse was formerly 
changed into Zaragoza, so that we find it spoken of as " the Sicilian 
Saragossa." 



328 GREAT EVENTS. 

wall. These deficiencies were in some degree remedied, 
by the nature of its buildings, which were well calculated 
for the internal warfare subsequently carried on, the houses 
being mostly built of brick and stone, and vaulted, so as 
to be almost incombustible. The city was also full of 
churches and convents, strongly built, and surrounded by 
high, thick walls. A broad street, called the Cosso, bent 
almost into a semicircle, concentric with the wall, and ter- 
minated, at each end, by the Ebro, divided the city into an 
outer and an inner part. It occupied the ground on which 
the Moorish walls had formerly stood, before the city at- 
tained its present size. This street was the scene of that 
heroic resistance, in 1808, which kept the French at bay, 
after the walls and one half of the place had fallen into their 
hands. On the third of August, rather more than a month 
after the commencement of the siege, the convent of St. 
Engracia, which formed part of the wall, was breached ; 
and, on the fourth, it was stormed, and the victorious 
troops carried all before them, as far as the Cosso, and, 
before night, were in possession of one half of the city. 
The French General now considered the city as his own, 
and summoned it to surrender, in a note containing only 
these words: "Head-quarters, St. Engracia, Capitula- 
tion." The emphatic reply is well known, and will be- 
come proverbial : " Head-quarters, Zaragoza, War to 
the Knife." 

" The contest, which was now carried on, is unexam- 
pled in history. One side of the Cosso, a street about 
as wide as Pall Mall, was possessed by the French, and 
in the centre of it, their general, Verdier, gave his orders 
from the Franciscan convent. The opposite side was 
maintained by the Aragonese, who threw up batteries at 
the openings of the cross streets, within a few paces of 
those which the French erected against them. The 
intervening space was presently heaped with dead, either 
slain upon the spot, or thrown out from the. windows. 
Next day, the ammunition of the citizens began to fail : 
the French were expected, every moment, to renew their 
efforts for completing the conquest, and even this circum- 
stance occasioned no dismay, nor did any one think of 
capitulation. One cry was heard from the people, 



THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA. 329 

whenever Palafox* rode amongst them, that, if powder 
failed, they were ready to attack the enemy with their 
knives, — formidable weapons, in the hands of desperate 
men. Just before the day closed, Don Francisco Pala- 
fox, the general's brother, enterea the city, with a convoy 
of arms and ammunition, and a reenforcement of three 
thousand men, composed of Spanish guards, Swiss, and 
volunteers of Aragon, — a succor as little expected by 
the Zaragozans, as it had been provided against by the 
enemy. 

" The war was now continued, from street to street, 
from house to house, and from room to room ; pride 
and indignation having wrought up the French to a 
pitch of obstinate fury, little inferior to the devoted 
courage of the patriots. During the whole siege, no 
man distinguished himself more remarkably, than the 
curate of one of the parishes within the walls, by name, 
P. Santiago Suss. lie was always to be seen in the 
streets ; sometimes, fighting with the most determined 
bravery ; at other times, administering the sacrament to 
the dying, and confirming, with the authority of faith, 
that hope, which gives to death, under such circumstan- 
ces, the joy, the exaltation, the triumph, and the spirit, 
of martyrdom. Palafox reposed the utmost confidence 
in the brave Priest, and selected him when any thing 
peculiarly difficult or hazardous was to be done. At 
the head of forty chosen men, he succeeded in introduc- 
ing into the town a supply of powder, so essentially nec- 
essary for its defence. 

'' This most obstinate and murderous conflict was 
continued, for eleven successive days and nights, more 
indeed by night, than by day ; for it was almost certain 
death to appear, by daylight, within reach of those houses 
which were occupied by the other party. But, under 
cover of the darkness, the combatants frequently dashed 
across the street, to attack each other's batteries ; and 
the battles, which began there, were often carried on 
into the houses beyond, where they fought from room 

* The General of the Zaragozans. — I. 
28* 



330 GREAT EVENTS. 

to room, and from floor to floor. The hostile batteries 
were so near each other, that a Spaniard, in one place, 
made way under cover of the dead bodies, which com- 
pletely filled the space between them, and fastened a 
rope to one of the French cannons ; in the struggle 
which ensued, the rope broke, and the Zaragozans lost 
their prize, at the very moment when they thought them- 
selves sure of it. 

" A new horror w^as added to the dreadful circum- 
stances of war, in this ever-memorable siege. In gener- 
al engagements, the dead are left upon the field of battle, 
and the survivors removed to clear ground and an untaint- 
ed atmosphere : but here, in Spain, and in the month of 
August, where the dead lay, the struggle was still carried 
on, and pestilence was dreaded, from the enormous ac- 
cumulation of putrefying bodies. Nothing, in the whole 
course of the siege, so much embarrassed Palafox, as 
this evil. The only remedy was, to lie ropes to the 
French prisoners, and push them forward, amid the dead 
and dying, to remove the bodies, and bring them away 
for interment. Even for this necessary office there was 
no truce, and it would have been certain death to the 
Aragonese, who should have attempted to perform it : 
but the prisoners were, in general, secured by the pity 
of their own soldiers, and in this manner the evil was, in 
some degree, diminished. 

" A council of war was held by the Spaniards, on the 
eighth, not for the purpose which is too usual in such 
councils, but that their heroic resolution might be com- 
municated to the people. It was, that, in those quarters 
of the city, where the Aragonese still maintained their 
ground, they should continue to defend themselves, with 
the same firmness. Should the enemy at last prevail, 
they were then to retire over the Ebro, into the suburbs, 
break down the bridge, and defend the suburbs, till they 
perished. When this resolution was made public, it 
was received with the loudest acclamations. But, in 
every conflict, the citizens now gained ground upon the 
soldiers, winning it, inch by inch, till the space occupied 
by the enemy, which, on the day of their entrance, was 



THE SIEGE OF ZAAAGOZA. 331 

nearly half the city, was reduced, gradually, to about an 
eighth part. Mean-time, intelligence of the events, in 
other parts of Spain, was received by the French, all 
tending to dishearten them. During the night of the 
thirteenth, their fire was particularly fierce and destruc- 
tive ; in the morning, the French columns, to the great 
surprise of the Spaniards, were seen at a distance, re- 
treating over the plain, on the road to Pampeluna."* 

Zaragoza, however, was a place of too much impor- 
tance, long to enjoy, in quiet, her hard-earned laurels. 
In the course of the Autumn, the French recovered 
their superiority, in Aragon ; and had no sooner done 
so, than they bent their strength to repair the disgrace 
which their arms had sustained, and overthrow the firm- 
est bulwark of independence in the western provinces of 
Spain. The inhabitants, aware that their heroic resist- 
ance had purchased only a temporary deliverance, em- 
ployed the intervening time in repairing and improving 
their external defences ; and still more so, in preparing 
to renew, to greater advantage, that internal conflict 
in which experience had shown their real strength to 
exist. 

" It has already been observed, that the houses of 
Zaragoza were fire-proof, and, generally, of only two 
stories ; and that, in all the quarters of the city, the 
numerous and massive convents and churches rose, like 
castles, above the low buildings ; and that the greater 
streets, running into the broadway, called the Cosso, 
divided the town into a variety of districts, unequal in 
size, but each containing one or more large structures. 
Now the citizens, sacrificing all personal convenience, 
and resigning all idea of private property, gave up their 
goods, their bodies, and their houses, to the war ; and, 
being promiscuously mingled with the peasantry and the 
regular soldiers, the whole formed one mighty garrison, 
well suited to the vast fortress into which Zaragoza was 
transformed : for the doors and windows of the houses 
were built up, and their fronts loopholed ; internal com- 

* Southey, History Peninsular War, Chap. ix. 



332 GREAT EVENTS. 

municatlons were broken through the party-walls, and 
the streets were trenched and crossed by earthen ram- 
parts mounted with cannon, and every strong building 
was turned into a separate fortification. There was no 
weak point, because there could be none, in a town 
which was all fortress, and where the space covered by 
the city was the measurement for the thickness of the 
ramparts ; nor, in this emergency, were the leaders un- 
mindful of moral force. 

" The people were cheered, by a constant reference 
to their former successful resistance ; their confidence 
was raised, by the contemplation of the vast works that 
had been executed ; and it was recalled to their recollec- 
tion, that the wet, usual at that season of the year, would 
spread disease among the enemy's ranks, and impair, if 
not entirely frustrate, his efforts. Neither was the aid 
of superstition neglected. Processions imposed upon 
the sight, false miracles bewildered the imagination, and 
terrible denunciations of Divine wrath shook the minds, 
of men whose former habits and present situation render- 
ed them peculiarly susceptible of such impressions. Fi- 
nally, the leaders were themselves so prompt and terrible, 
in their punishments, that the greatest cowards were like- 
ly to show the boldest bearing, in their wish to escape 
suspicion. 

" To avoid the danger of any great explosion, the 
powder was made, as occasion required ; and this was 
the more easily effected, because Zaragoza contained 
a royal depot and refinery for saltpetre, and there were 
powdermills in the neighborhood, which furnished work- 
men familiar with the process of manufacturing that arti- 
cle. The houses and trees beyond the walls were all 
demolished and cut down, and the materials carried into 
the town. The public magazines contained six months' 
provisions ; the convents were well stocked ; and the in- 
habitants had likewise laid up their own stores for several 
months. General Doyle had also sent a convoy into the 
town, from the side of Catalonia ; and there was abun 
dance of money, because, in addition to the resources 
of the town, the mihtary chest of Castanos's army, which 



THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA. 333 

had been supplied only the night before the battle of Tu- 
dela, had been, in the flight, carried into the town. 

" Companies of women, enrolled to attend the hospi- 
tals, and to carry provisions and ammunition to the com- 
batants, were commanded by the Countess Burita, a lady 
of an heroic disposition, who is said to have displayed 
the greatest intelligence and the noblest character, during 
both sieges. There were thirteen engineer officers, and 
eight hundred sappers and miners, composed of excavat- 
ors, formerly employed on the canal, and there were 
from fifteen hundred to two thousand cannoneers. 

" The regular troops that fled from Tudela, being 
joined by two small divisions which retreated, at the same 
time, from Sanguessa and Caparosa, formed a garrison 
of thirty thousand men, and, together with the inhabitants 
and peasantry, presented a mass of fifty thousand com- 
batants, who, with passions excited almost to frenzy, 
awaited an assault, amidst those mighty entrenchments, 
where each man's home was a fortress, and his family a 
garrison. To besiege, with only thirty-five thousand men 
a city so prepared, was truly a gigantic undertaking."* 

It was on December 20, 1808, that Marshals Moncey 
and Mortier appeared in front of the town. We pass 
over the early part of the siege, which contains nothing 
to distinguish it from a multhude of others. The French, 
supported by a powerful battering and mortar train, ad- 
vanced their trenches slowly towards the town, until the 
twenty-second of January, when Marshal Lasnes arrived, 
to assume the command. On the twenty-ninth, four 
breaches were declared practicable. That night, four 
columns rushed to the assault ; one was repulsed, the 
other three established themselves ; and the ramparts of 
the city became the front line of the French trenches. 

" The walls of Zaragoza thus went to the ground, but 
Zaragoza herself remained erect ; and, as the broken 
girdle fell from the heroic city, the besiegers started, at 
the view of her naked strength. The regular defences 
had indeed crumbled, before the skill of the assailants, 

* Napier's History of the Peninsular War, Book V. Chap. ii. 



334 GREAT EVENTS. 

but the popular resistance was immediately called, with 
its terrors, into action. ***^********* 
The war being now carried into the streets of Zaragoza, 
the sound of the alarmbell was heard over all the quarters 
of the city, and the people, assembling in crowds, filled 
the houses nearest to the lodgements made by the French. 
Additional traverses and barricadoes were constructed 
across the principal streets ; mines were prepared in the 
more open spaces ; and the communications from house 
to house were multiplied, until they formed a vast laby- 
rinth, of which the intricate windings were only to be 
traced by the weapons and the dead bodies of the de- 
fenders. The members of the Junta, become more 
powerful from the cessation of regular warfare, with re- 
doubled activity and energy urged the defence, but in- 
creased the horrors of the siege, by a ferocity pushed to 
the very verge of frenzy. Every person, without regard 
to rank or age, who excited the suspicion of these furious 
men, or those immediately about them, was instantly put 
to death ; and, amid the noble bulwarks of war, a horrid 
array of gibbets was to be seen, on which, crowds of 
wretches were suspended, each night, because their cour- 
age had sunk beneath the accumulating dangers of their 
situation, or because some doubtful expression, or gesture 
of distress, had been misconstrued by their barbarous 
chiefs. 

'' From the heights of the walls, which he had con- 
quered. Marshal Lasnes contemplated this terrific scene ; 
and, judging that men so passionate and so prepared, 
could not be prudently encountered, in open battle, he 
resolved to proceed by the slow but certain progress of 
the mattock and the mine ; and this was also in unison 
with the Emperor's instructions. Hence, from the 
twenty-ninth of January to the second of February, the 
efforts of the French were directed to the enlargement 
of their lodgement on the walls ; and they succeeded, 
after much severe fighting and several explosions, in 
working forward, through the nearest houses ; but, at the 
same time, they had to sustain many counter-assaults 
from the Spaniards. 



THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA. 335 

'' It has been already observed, that the crossing of 
the large streets divided the town into certain small dis- 
tricts, or islands of houses. To gain possession of these, 
it was necessary, not only to mine, but to fight for each 
house. To cross the large intersecting streets, it was 
indispensable to construct traverses above, or to work by 
underground galleries, because a battery raked each street, 
and each house was defended by a garrison, that, gener* 
ally speaking, had only the option of repelling the ene- 
my in front, or dying on the gibbet erected behind. But, 
as long as the convents and churches remained in possess- 
ion of the Spaniards, the progress of the French, among 
the islands of small houses, was of little advantage to 
them, because the large garrisons, in the greater buildings, 
enabled the defenders not only to make continual and 
successful sallies, but also to countermine their enemies, 
whose superior skill, in that kind of warfare, was often 
frustrated, by the numbers and persevering energy of the 

'' The experience of these attacks* induced a change 
in the mode of fighting, on both sides. Hitherto, the 
play of the French mines had reduced the houses to 
ruins, and thus the soldiers were exposed completely to 
the fire from the next Spanish posts. The engineers 
therefore diminished the quantity of powder, that the in- 
terior only might fall, and the outward walls stand, and 
this method was found successful. Hereupon, the Span- 
iards, with ready ingenuity, saturated the timbers and 
planks of the houses, with rosin and pitch, and, setting 
fire to those which could no longer be maintained, inter- 
posed a burning barrier, which often delayed the assailants 
for two days, and always prevented them from pushing 
their successes, during the confusion that necessarily fol 
lowed the bursting of the mines. The fighting was, 
however, incessant ; a constant bombardment, the explo 
sion of mines, the crash of falling buildings, clamorous 
shouts, and the continued echo of musketry, deafened 

* Attempts made by the French to force their way into the centre 
of the city, from the twenty-ninth of January to the second of Feb- 
ruary. 



336 GREAT EVEJNTS. 

the ear, while volumes of smoke and dust clouded the 
atmosphere, and lowered, conthiually, over the heads of 
the combatants, as, hour by hour, the French, with a 
terrible perseverance, pushed forwards their approaches 
to the heart of the miserable but glorious city. 

" Their efforts were chiefly directed against two points ; 
namely, that of San Engracia, w-hich may be denominat- 
ed the left attack, and that of St. Augustin and St. Mon- 
ica, which constituted the right attack. At San Engra- 
cia, they labored on a line perpendicular to the Cosso, 
from which they were separated only by the large convent 
of the Daughters of Jerusalem, and by the hospital for 
madmen, which was intrenched, although in ruins since 
the first siege. The line of this attack was protected, on 
the left, by the convent of the Capuchins, which General 
Lacoste had fortified, to repel the counter-assaults of the 
Spaniards. The right attack was more difi:used, because 
the localities presented less prominent features, to deter- 
mine the direction of the approaches ; and the French, 
having mounted a number of light six-inch mortars, on 
peculiar carriages, drew them from street to street, and 
from house to house, as occasion offered. On the other 
hand, the Spaniards continually phed their enemies with 
handgrenades, which seem to have produced a surprising 
effect ; and, in this manner, the never-ceasing combat was 
prolonged, until the seventh of February, when the be- 
siegers, by dint of alternate mines and assaults, had worked 
their perilous way, at either attack, to the Cosso, but not 
without several changes of fortune and considerable loss. 
They were, however, unable to obtain a footing on that 
public walk, for the Spaniards still disputed every house, 
widi undiminished resolution. *********** 

" The eighth, ninth, and tenth, were wasted by the 
besiegers, in vain attempts to pass the Cosso ; they then 
extended their flanks. * * * The eleventh and twelfth, 
mines were worked under the University, a large building 
on the Spanish side of the Cosso, in the line of the right 
attack ; but their play was insufficient to open the walls, 
and the storming party was beaten with the loss of fifty 
men.^ Nevertheless, the besiegers, continuing their la- 



THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZAc 337 

bors during the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, 
and seventeenth, passed the Cosso, by means of travers- 
es, and prepared fresh mines under the University, but 
deferred their explosion, until a simultaneous eiFort could 
be combined on the side of the suburb. 

" At the left attack, also, a number of houses, border- 
ing on the Cosso, being gained, a battery was established, 
that raked that great thoroughfare above ground ; while, 
under it, six galleries were carried, and six mines loaded, 
to explode at the same moment. But the spirit of the 
French army was now exhausted ; they had labored and 
fought, without intermission, for fifty days ; they had 
crumbled the walls with their bullets, burst the convents 
with their mines, and carried the walls with their bayon- 
ets. Fighting above and beneath the surface of the 
earth, they had spared neither fire nor the sword ; their 
bravest men were falling, in the obscurity of a subterra- 
nean warfare ; famine pinched them ; and Zaragoza was 
still unconquered ! 

" ' Before this siege,' they exclaimed, ' was it ever 
heard, that twenty thousand men should besiege fifty 
thousand ?' Scarcely a fourth of the town was won, and 
they, themselves, were already exhausted. ' We must 
wait,' they said, ' for reenforcements, or we shall all per- 
ish, among these cursed ruins, which will become our 
own tombs, before we can force the last of these fanatics 
from the last of their dens.' 

" Marshal Lasnes, unshaken by these murmurs, and 
obstinate to conquer, endeavored to raise the soldiers' 
hopes. He pointed out to them, that the losses of the 
besieged so far exceeded their own, that the Spaniards' 
strength must soon be wasted, and their courage must 
sink, and that the fierceness of their defence was already 
abated : but if, contrary to expectation, they should re- 
new the example of Numantia, their utter destruction 
must quickly ensue, from the combined effects of battle, 
misery, and pestilence. 

'' These exhortations succeeded ; and, on the eigh- 
teenth, all the combinations being complete, a general 
assault took place. The French at the right attack, 
29 G.. E' 



5»38 GREAT EVENTS, 

having opened a party-wall by the explosion of a petard, 
made a sudden rush through some burning ruins, and 
carried, without a check, the island of houses leading 
down to the quay, with the exception of two buildings. 
The Spaniards were thus forced to abandon all the ex- 
ternal fortifications between St. Augustin and the Ebro, 
which they had preserved until that day. And, while 
this assault was in progress, the mines under the Univer- 
sity, containing three thousand pounds of powder, were 
sprung ; and the walls tumbling with a terrific crash, a 
column of the besiegers entered the place, and, after 
one repulse, secured a lodgement. During this time, 
fifty pieces of artillery thundered upon the suburb, and 
ploughed up the bridge over the Ebro, and, by mid-day. 
opened a practicable breach in the great convent of St 
Lazar, which was the principal defence on that side 
Lasnes, observing that the Spaniards seemed to be shak 
en, by this overwhelming fire, immediately ordered an 
assault ; and, St. Lazar being carried, forthwith, all re- 
treat to the bridge was thus intercepted, and the besieged, 
falling into confusion, and their commander. Baron Ver- 
sage, being killed, were all destroyed or taken, with the 
exception of two or three hundred men, who, braving the 
terrible fire to which they were exposed, got back into 
the town. General Gazan immediately occupied the 
abandoned works ; and, having thus cut off above two 
thousand men that were stationed on the Ebro, above 
the suburb, forced them, also, to surrender. 

" This important success being followed, on the nine- 
teenth, by another fortunate attack on the right bank of 
the Ebro, and by the devastating explosion of sixteen hun- 
dred pounds of powder, the constancy of the besieged was 
at last shaken. An aid-de-camp of Palafox came forth, 
to demand certain terms, before offered by the Marshal, 
adding thereto, that the garrison should be allowed to 
join the Spanish armies, and that a certain number of 
covered carriages should follow them. Lasnes rejected 
these proposals, and the fire continued, but the hour of 
surrender was come. Fifty pieces of artillery, on the 
left bank of the Ebro, laid the houses on the quay in 



THE SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA. 339 

ruins. The church of Our Lady of the Pillar, under 
whose especial protection the city was supposed to exist, 
was nearly effaced by the bombardment ; and the six 
mines under the Cosso, loaded with many thousand 
pounds of powder, were ready for a simultaneous explo- 
sion, which would have laid a quarter of the remaining 
houses in the dust. In fine, war had done its work, 
and the misery of Zaragoza could no longer be en- 
dured. 

" The bombardment, which had never ceased from 
the tenth of January, had forced the women and children 
to take refuge in the vaults, with which the city abound- 
ed. There, the constant combustion of oil, the close- 
ness of the atmosphere, unusual diet, and fear and rest- 
lessness of mind, had combined to produce a pestilence, 
which soon spread to the garrison. The strong and 
weak, the daring soldier and the timid child, alike fell 
before it ; and such was the state of the atmosphere, and 
the disposition to disease, that the slightest wound gan- 
grened, and became incurable. In the beginning of Feb- 
ruary, the deaths were from four to five hundred, daily ; 
the living were unable to bury the dead ; and thousands 
of carcasses, scattered about the streets and court-yards, 
or piled in heaps, at the doors of the churches, were left 
to dissolve, in their own corruption, or to be licked up 
by the flames of the burning houses, as the defence be- 
came contracted. 

" The suburb, the greatest portion of the walls, and 
one-fourth of the houses, were in the hands of the French. 
Sixteen thousand shells, thrown during the bombardment, 
and the explosion of forty-five thousand pounds of pow- 
der, in the mines, had shaken the city to its foundations ; 
and the bones of more than forty thousand persons, of 
every age and sex, bore dreadful testimony to the con- 
stancy of the besieged. 

" Palafox was sick ; and, of the plebeian chiefs, the 
most distinguished having been slain in battle, or swept 
away by the pestilence, the obdurate violence of the re- 
maining leaders was so abated, that a fresh Junta was 
formed ; and, after a stormy consultation, the majoritjr 



340 GREAT EVENTS. 

being for a surrender, a deputation waited on Marshal 
Lasnes on the twentieth of February, to negotiate a ca- 
pitulation."* 

Some doubt exists, as to the terms obtained. The 
French writers assert, that the place surrendered at dis- 
cretion ; the Spaniards say, the following conditions were 
obtained : that the garrison should march out with the 
honors of war, to be constituted prisoners, and marched 
to France ; the peasants to be sent home, and property 
and religion to be guarantied. On the twenty-first, from 
twelve to fifteen thousand sickly men laid down the arms 
which they could scarcely support, and this memorable 
Siege was terminated. 

* Napier, History of Peninsular War, Book V. chap. iii. 



GLOSSARY 



OF WORDS AND PHRASES NOT EASILY TO BE UNDERSTOOD 
BY THE YOUNG READER. 

[Many names of persons and places, terms of art, &c., which 
occur in this Volume, will be found explained in one of the places 
where they occur. For these, see Index.] 

Aarau, (or Arau,) the capital o^ Aargau, one of the cantons (or dis- 
tricts) of Switzerland. 

Aarberg, (or Arberg,) a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, 
on the River Aar. 

Aargau, {or Argau,) one of the cantons (or districts) of Switzerland, 
formerly a part of the cantons of Berne and Zurich. 

Academy, the French, a literary society, in Paris, formed A. D. 1629, 
consisting of forty members, styled academicians. Its object is the 
cultivation of literature and criticism. The 3/emorrs of the Acade- 
my are collections of papers, on various subjects, contributed by itsa 
members, and published from time to time. 

Acarnania, (now called Carnia,) a country in the northwestern part 
of ancient Greece, west of ^tolia, and bordering on the Ionian Sea. 

Accessor, (or, in Latin, accensus,) an officer, whose business it was 
to attend upon the judicial magistrates in ancient Rome ; a messen- 
ger, pursuivant, or beadle. 

Achaia, properly, a narrow district of the Peloponnesus, (now called 
the Morea,) lying south of the Gulf of Corinth, (now the Gulf of 
Lepanto.) The term was sometimes applied to the whole of Greece, 
and sometimes, as by Herodotus, (page 11,) to the southern part 
of Thessaly, called Phthiotis. 

Achilles, one of the Grecian heroes, who fought at the siege of Troy, 
and who is celebrated in the Iliad of Homer. He was remarkable 
for his courage, and also for having been the bravest of all the Greeks 
in the Trojan war. He is said to have been, while an infant, dipped 
by his mother in the River Styx, which rendered him invulnerable, 
(or incapable of being hurt,) in every part except the heel, by which 
she held him. At the siege of Troy he received a wound in the 
heel, which caused his death. He severely wounded Telephus, King 
of Mysia, in battle, and it being declared, by an Oracle, that 
" the weapon alone, which had inflicted the wound, could cure it," 
Achilles applied the rust from the point of his spear to the sore, 
which is said to have given it immediate relief, and effected a cure. 
It is to this circumstance, that Pope Clement alluded, when, as men- 
tioned on page 263, he compared Cardinal Colonna to •' the lance 
of Achilles." 

Actiumt (now called Azio,) a promontory on the western coast of 
29* 



342 GLOSSARY. 

Greeie, famous as the scene of a naval battle between Octaviusand 
Antony, B. C. 31. Cleopatra was on the side of Antony, but fled, 
wit^ her sixty ships, shortly after the action commenced, and was 
followed by Antony ; leaving the victory to Octavius. 

^gean Sea, the ancient name of the sea lying between the coasts of 
Greece and Asia Minor. From a corruption of the word JEgao- 
pelago, the modern Greek pronunciation of AlyaTov Tlklayoq, (the 
iEgean Sea,) comes the word Archipelago, which is applied to any 
sea abounding in small islands, or to the groups of islands themselves. 
It is more particularly applied, however, to those of the JEgean Sea. 

^gina, (now called Engia,) an island in the Saronic gulf, (now gulf 
of Engia,) lying west of the southern point of Attica. 

^schylus, the most ancient of the tragic poets of Greece, was born 
B. C. 525, and lived to the age of seventy years. His works are 
marked by a stern and simple grandeur. Of as many as seventy 
tragedies, written by him, only seven are now extant. In the earlier 
part of his life, vEschylus was a soldier, and fought in the battles of 
Marathon and Salamis. 

JSEsculapius, in the ancient mythology, was the god of medicine, and 
a son of Apollo. He is usually represented as holding a staff, round 
which is entwined a serpent, the emblem of convalescence ; and 
near him stands a cock, the emblem of watchfulness. 

Afrasiab, an ancient Tartar prince, son of Pushung, King of Turan. 
He invaded Persia, and became King of that counti'y, which he 
ruled for twelve years ; after which, he suffered many reverses, be- 
ing driven fronj Persia, defeated in several battles, and finally cap- 
tured, and put to death by order of the Persian monarch, Kai Kho- 
osroo. He is supposed to have flourished between B. C, 600 and 
700. 

Aga, the title of a Turkish military officer, a captain. 

Ajaccio, the capital of Corsica, and the birthplace of Napoleon Bona- 
parte. 

Alba, (or alb,) a white linen vestment, resembling a surplice, anciently 
worn by the clergy in the administration of the Holy Communion. 

Alpnach, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne. 

AUdorff, (or Ahorf,) the chief town in the canton of Uri, in Switzer- 
land. 

Amphyction, an ancient Grecian king, the founder of the Council of 
the Amphyctions, an assembly composed of deputies from the states 
of Greece, who had their ' seats,^ or place of assembly, first at Del- 
phi, and afterwards at the village of Anthela, near Thermopylos. 
This Council took cognizance of public dissensions between states 
and cities, and of various civil and criminal offences. 

Analecta Veterum Poetarum GrcBcorum, Fragments from the An- 
cient Greek Poets. 

Anatolia, (or Natolia,) anciently called Asia Minor, a country lying 
between the Grecian Archipelago on the west, the Black Sea on the 
north, Armenia and Syria on the east, and the Mediterranean on the 
south. 

Antias, (Latin,) an inhabitant of Antium, a city of ancient Italy, on 
the Mediterranean. Valerius Antias, or Valerias of Antium, was 



GLOSSARY. 343 

an ancient historian, frequently cited by Livy, but none of his works 
have come down to us. 

Jlnticyray a city in Thessaly, the situation. of whicli is described on 
page 11. 

Antiochus (the Great) became King of Syria, B. C. 244. Having 
been victorious against various other nations, he made war against 
the Romans, but was unsuccessful, and was obliged to conclude a 
humiliating peace. 

dpollodorus, a friend of Socrates, 

Apology, a defence of one who is accused. ' Plato's Apology' is a 
defence of Socrates from the unjust charges brought agauist him, 
and Socrates is introduced in it, speaking in his own person. 

Apparitor, a general name, applied to any attendant upon, or public 
servant of, a Roman magistrate. 

Apropos, (French,) opportunely ; to the purpose. 

Apulia, a country of ancient Italy, lying upon the Adriatic Sea, (now 
Gulf of Venice.) 

Arcadia, a mountainous country of ancient Greece, in the central part 
of tlie Peloponnesus. 

Archipelago, see JEgea7i Sea. 

Argau, see Aargau. 

Arginusce, the name of some islands in the ^gean Sea, near the coast 
of Asia Minor, near which a naval battle was fought between the 
Athenians and Lacedaemonians, B. C. 405, in which the former were 
victorious. But the Athenian generals, being prevented by a storm 
from taking up the dead bodies in order to their interment, drew 
upon themselves the resentment of their countrymen, and were ac- 
cused of wilfully neglecting what was considered a sacred duty to 
the dead. They were recalled from their command, and the six 
generals who returned to Athens, were tried before the people, on 
this unjust charge, and were condenmed, and executed. 

Ariosto, a celebrated Italian poet, born in 1474. His great work is 
the ' Orlando Furioso,' an epic poem, in forty-six cantos, written 
with great liveliness of narration and richness of invention, and which 
is ranked by the Italians among the masterpieces of their literature. 
He died at the age of fifty-eight. 

Aristides, an Athenian, who was one of the generals at the battle of 
Marathon, B. C. 490, and commanded at the battle of Plataeae, B. C, 
479. He was remarkable for his strict integrity, in which his fel- 
low-citizens, on various occasions, manifested their entire confi- 
dence, and he bore, in Athens, the surname of ' the Just.' 

Aristophanes, a comic poet, of Athens, who flourished in the fifth cen- 
tury before Christ. His comedies (eleven of which, out of fifty-four, 
now remain) were greatly admired by the Athenians, for the rich- 
ness of their wit, and the polished grace of the style in which they 
were composed. To modern taste, they appear gross and immoral. 
Agreeably to the freedom of ancient comedy, persons living at the 
time were brought upon the stage by name, and made the subjects 
of the most unbridled sarcasm. Thus Socrates was one of the ' per- 
sons of the drama' in the comedy of * the Clouds,' which is devoted 
to the ridicule of himself and his school. 



344 GLOSSARY. 

AristotlCy one of the most celebrated philosophers of Greece, who was 
born B. C. 384, at Slagira, in Macedonia, (whence he is often term- 
ed * the Stagirite.') He went to Athens, at the age of eighteen years, 
and remained there twenty years, a pupil of Plato, and himself the 
master of a school of rhetoric. He was afterwards the tutor of Alex- 
ander the Great, and, after the accession of Alexander to the throne 
of Macedon, repaired to Athens, where he opened a school of philos- 
ophy at the Lyceum., a gymnasium near Athens. He left Athens to 
escape prosecution on a charge of atheism, and shortly after de- 
stroyed himself by poison. Various works of this philosopher yet 
remain, on political and moral science, and natural history. 

Arquebuss, (or harquebuss,) one of the earliest forms of firearms, of 
the ordinary length of a musket, and carrying a ball of about two 
ounces. Soldiers armed with it were called arquebusiers. 

Aragonese, inhabitants oi Aragon, formerly a distinct kingdom in the 
northeastern part of Spain. In 1474, it was united with Castile, an- 
other of the chief divisions of Spain, by the marriage of Ferdinand, 
King of Aragon, with Isabella, Queen of Castile ; and they, by the 
conquest of the Moors, who then possessed the southern part of 
Spain, became subsequently Sovereigns of the whole Spanish terri- 
tory. 

Art, a town in Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz, at the southern 
extremity of Lake Zug. 

Asia Minor, see Anatolia. 

Astrology, an art, which pretends to foretell future events, especially 
the fate of men, from the position of the stars. 

Athens, the most renowned city of ancient Greece, was the capital of 
Attica, a country lying in the eastern part of Greece, on the shores 
of the ^gcan Sea. It was remarkable for the magnificence of its 
public buildings, and for the beautiful worlis of art which adorned 
them. It was the resort of poets, artists, and philosophers, and 
abounded in schools of philosophy and rhetoric. Athens is still in- 
- teresting, for the remains of ancient architecture found there, in a 
more or less perfect state of preservation, and is the seat of the pres- 
ent government of Greece. 

Atmeidan, (horse-place,) the name given by the Turks to the Hippo- 
drome at Constantinople. Hippodrome (horse-course) is a Greek 
word, signifying a public place where horse and chariot races were 
held. That at Constantinople was remarkable for its splendor, 
being adorned with numerous beautiful works of sculpture ; many 
relics of which exist at the present day. 

Attabals, Turkish musical instruments. 

Attica, a country of Greece, forming a kind of triangular peninsula al 
the southeastern point of that part of Greece north of the Pelopon 
nesus, or Morea. Athens was its capital. 

Augury, the prediction of future events, by signs derived from va- 
rious appearances of Nature, and particularly the flight of birds. 

Augustines, an order of monks and nuns, established in the thirteenth 
century, and named after St. Augustine, who was one of the most 
renowned fathers of the Christian Church, and lived in the fourth 
century. Before the Reformation, this order possessed two thoua- 



GLOSSARY. 345 

and convents, containing thirty thousand monks, and three hundred 
nunneries. Luther was a monk of this order. 

Auricular confession, the disclosure of sins to a priest, with a view 
to obtain pardon for them, a practice of the Roman Catholic Church. 
The priest enjoins a penance, (or self-inflicted punishment,) pro- 
portioned to the magnitude of the offence. The priest, hearing con- 
fession, is styled a confessor. 

Auvergne, formerly a large and important province, in the interior of 
France. 

dve Maria, the name of a Latin prayer to Mary, the mother of Jesus, 
much used in the Roman Catholic Church, and commencing with 
the words, Ave, Maria! (Hail, Mary !) 

dvon, the name of four different rivers in England. Two of them 
flow into the Severn ; at the town of Stratford, on one of which, 
Shakspeare was born. 

Avoyer, the title of the chief magistrate of a Swiss town. 

Azyniites. In the controversies between the Roman and Greek Cath- 
olics, the former contended that the bread of the sacrament ought to 
be azymus, (from the Greek u^vuog, unleavened,) and were hence 
called Azymites. 

Bailiff. The magistrates appointed by the Austrians over Switzer- 
land had the title of vogt, or landvogt, meaning bailiff, by which 
title they were also called, and which is equivalent to sheriff or 
governor. The district governed by a vogt (or bailiif) was called 
a vogtei or bailiwick. The word bailiff wols also the title of a class 
of officers in the order of the Knights of St. John. (See page 159.) 
Eight Bailiffs, with the Grand Master at their head, formed the chap- 
ter, or grand council of the order. 

Barbacan, a fortification before the walls of a town ; a fortress at the 
end of a bridge ; an opening in the wall, out of which to shoot. 

Barricade, (or Barricado,) a temporary fortification, made by heaping 
together various objects, such as wagons, chests, casks, beamsj 
branches of trees, stones, &c., for the purpose of retarding an en 
emy, and giving an opportunity of firing upon him while he is en 
gaged in removing them. 

Basha, (or Bashaw, now usually written Pacha,) the title of the mili 
tary governor of a Turkish province. 

Bastion, the projecting pArt of. the principal wall of a fortifiedj^lat e 
The wall between two bastions is called the curtain. 

Battering-ram, a long beain, like the mast of a ship, armed at on^ 
end with iron, in the form of a rar/i's head, and employed in break 
ing down the wall of a besieged place. It was one of the most fi» 
midable engines of ancient warfare. Being suspended by the mid 
die with ropes or chains, fastened to a beam that lay across twc 
posts, and thus hanging equally balanced, it was violently thru,! 
forward, by about a hundred men, till its iron head had effected U 
breach in the wall of the fortress. 

Battery, any raised place, in which cannon are planted ; a fortifica 
tion provided with cannon. A line of cannon planted against a 
battery, is called, iri reference to it, a Counter battery. 

Bavin, a piece of wood, like those of which fagots are made ; any 
piece of waste wood. 



04O GLOSSARY. 

Bayonne, a wealthy commercial city in France, on the bay of Biscay. 

Begler-bei, (or BegUr-beg, lord of lords,) the title of a governor of 
a Turkish province. 

Behemoth,^ a Hebrew word, signifying a beast of burden. The behe- 
moth, spoken of in the book of Job, is supposed, by some, to be a 
hippopotamus ; by others, an ox ; by many, an elephant. By the 
early Fathers, the devil was supposed to be meant by it. 

Belgrade, a city of European Turkey, on the Danube. It was con- 
quered by the Turks, under Solyman the Second, in 1521 ; previ- 
ously to which, it had been in the possession of the Austrians. 
, Since that time, it has repeatedly passed from the Turks to the Aus- 
trians, but finally has remained in the hands of the Turks. 

Benedictines, an order of monks, so named from its founder, St. Ben- 
edict, by whom it was established in the sixth century. In the 
twelfth century, there were two thousand monasteries belonging to 
this order. 

Berne, or Bern, one of the cantons of Switzerland, having a capital 
city of the same name. 

Baotia, a country of ancient Greece, lying northwest of Attica. 
Thebes was its capital city. 

iiombardinent, an attack made by throwing bombs, which are hollow 
iron balls, filled with powder and combustibles, and employed for 
setting fire to houses, blowing up magazines, &c. The bomb, 
which has a hole in which a fuse is inserted, is discharged from a 
kind of short cannon, called a mortar. The fuse, which is a hol- 
low wooden plug, filled with some preparation which burns regu- 
larly and rapidly, is made of such length, as that the bomb shall 
not explode till it reaches its destined place. It then bursts, and its 
fragments destroy every thing within reach. 

Bonaparte, see JSTapoleon, and also, pages 236, 237. 

Bosnia, a province of European Turkey. 

Bosphorus, the ancient name of the strait (now called the canal or 
strait of Constantinople) which leads from the Black Sea into the 
Sea of Marmora. 

Bra7idenberg,an extensive district in Germany, formerly governed by 
an elector, and now forming one of the most important of the Prus- 
sian states. 

Breakwater, or mole, a structure employed to form an artificial har- 
bor. It consists of a vast heap of large stones, the top of which 
rises above the surface of the water. This breaks the force of the 
waves, and affords, within the mole, safe anchorage. 

Breisach, (or Brisach,) a town on the Rhine, formerly one of the 
strongest towns in Europe, and the capital of the Breisgau. 

Breisgau, (or Brisgau,) an extensive tract in the southwest part of 
Germany, formerly in the possession of Austria, but now belonging 
to Baden. It is one of the most fertile parts of Germany. 

Bremgarten, a town of Aargau, in Switzerland. 

Brescia^ a city of Austrian Italy, in the government of Milan. It is 
a handsome city, of about thirty-five thousand inhabitants, and noted 
for its manufactures. 

Brigantine, a light, flat, open vessel, with ten or fifteen oars on a 
side, capable of carrying one huudred men ; much used on the 



GLOSSARY. 347 

Mediterranean. The name is sometimes, however, applied to the 
two-masted, square-rigged vessel, called a brig. 

Brocade^ a woven stuff of silk, variegated with figures of foliage or 
flowers, in gold and silver. 

Brunnen, a town of Switzerland, in the district of Schwytz. 

Brutus, (Lucius Junius,) a nephew of Tarquin the Proud, the last 
King of Rome, whose enmity he eluded by feigning himself insane, 
whence he was surnamed Brutus (the stupid.) On the occasion 
of the death of Lucretia, who slew herself in consequence of the 
brutal outrage of a son of Tarqum, Brutus threw off the disguise of 
stupidity, and was one of the most vigorous agents in the expulsion 
of the kings from Rome. The regal office being abolished, the 
chief authority was given to two magistrates, called consuls, and 
Brutus was one of the first two chosen to this office. He was slain 
in battle, B. C. 509. 

Bulgarian, belonging to Bulgaria, a province of European Turkey, 
named from the Bulgarians, an Asiatic tribe, who removed to Eu- 
rope in the sixth century. Bulgaria is a mountainous country, lying 
south of the Danube, and west of the Black Sea. 

Bull, an ordinance or decree of the Pope, written on parchment, and 
provided with a leaden seal. The Latin word bulla, signifying a 
knob or boss, was originally applied to the seal itself, and afterwards 
to the whole instrument. On page 142, a reference is made to the 
bull beginning with the words in Cana Domini, (in the Lord's 
Supper.) This was one of the most remarkable of all the papal 
bulls, for its arrogance of tone. It asserted the supreme authority 
of the Church of Rome over all temporal power, and declared sen- 
tence of excommunication upon all heretics and favorers of heretics. 
It was founded upon old papal decrees, and was at various times, 
from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century, extended and mod- 
ified. 

Burgess, (plural, burgesses,) a citizen ; a freeman of a city or town ; 
it sometimes signifies a representative of a city or town. 

Burgher, (from the German,) a citizen ; one having the privilege of 
citizenship in any place. 

Burgomaster, the title of a chief magistrate of large towns in the 
Netherlands and Germany. 

Burgonians, (for Burgundians,) inhabitants of Burgundy. 

Bur grave, a German title of nobility ; captain, governor, or lord, of 
a city or castle. 

Burgundy, a province in the east of France, forming an independent 
kingdom till 1361, when it was annexed to the French crown. It 
is remarkable for the fertility of its soil, and the excellence of its 
wines. 

Byzantine empire. In the year 395, the Emperor Theodosius divi- 
ded the Roman empire between his two sons, giving to Honorius 
the western portion, and to Arcadius the eastern. The latter was 
called the Byzantine empire, from its seat of government, Byzan- 
tium, (now called Constantinople ;) and survived the western em- 
pire, (the seat of which was at Rome,) about one thousand years ; 
lasting till the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453 



348 GLOSSARY. 

Calatia, a town of ancient Italy, in Campania. 

Caliph, (more properly Kkalif,) the imperial title assumed by the suc- 
cessors of Mohammed among the Saracens, {ichich see,) -who wero 
vested with absolute power in affairs both religicus and civil. The 
word is Arabic, and signifies a vicar, substitute, heir, or successor. 

Caloyers, an order of monks, of the Greek Church, the rules of which 
enjoin solitude, and the greatest austerity and abstinence. 

Camillus, (Marcus Furius,) an illustrious Roman warrior. After 
having held various high offices in the state, and conquered, in sev- 
eral wars, the enemies of Rome, he was unjustly accused of having 
embezzled a part of the plunder of Veil, (a city of Etruria, van- 
quished by Camillus, when dictator,) and went into voluntary exile- 
But when Rome was in imminent danger from the Gauls, Camillus, 
being again appointed dictator by his repentant countrymen, took 
command of a body of Romans who had fled to Veii, marched to 
Rome, and rescued the city from the Gauls. The services of Camil- 
lus were required in various subsequent wars ; he was five times 
made dictator ; and, when eighty years old, vanquished a new army 
of Gauls, who had approached the city. He died of the plague, 
B. C. 365. 

Campania, the ancient name' of a province of Italy, on the Mediter- 
ranean, in the present kingdom of Naples. It has always been one 
of the most beautiful and fruitful portions of Italy. 

Candiotes, inhabitants of Candia, (anciently Crete,) an important 
island in the Mediterranean, lying south of the Grecian Archipel- 
ago. It was in the hands of the Venetians, from the beginning of 
the thirteenth to the latter part of the seventeenth century, when it 
was conquered by the Turks, after a long, bloody, and obstinate war. 

The great Cannon of Mohammed, several times mentioned in this 
Volume is said to have thrown a stone ball weighing six hundred 
pounds. 

Cantabria, the ancient name of a country in the north of Spain, bor- 
dering on the bay of Biscay. 

Cantacuzene. The family name of two of the Byzantine emperors, 
John and Matthew, who held the Imperial throne from A. D. 1341, 
to 1355. The former is considered as one of the greatest of the 
successors of Constantine the Great. 

Cantemir, (Demetrius,) an author of some considerable works, born 
in Moldavia, (a province of European Turkey , bordering on Russia,) 
in 1673. He was repeatedly appointed prince of Moldavia, under 
the Turkish government, but finally entered into a treaty with the 
Emperor of Russia, and became a prince of the Russian Empire. 
His principal works are, a ' History of the Rise and Fall of the Ot- 
toman Empire ;' ' The System of the Mohammedan religion ;' and 
* The present state of Moldavia,' with a large Map of the country. 

Capitol, the citadel of ancient Rome, standing upon one of the seven 
hills on which Rome was built, called the Capitoline hill. The ed- 
ifice of the capitol was square, and contained three temples, sacred 
to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. The capitol was several times burn- 
ed and rebuilt. It was adorned with great magnificence, and wa» 
the scene of various public solemnities. 



GLOSSARY. 349 

Capuan gate. One of the gates of ancient Rome, through which 
passed the road leading to Capua, the capital of Campania, a city 
of great wealth and luxury. 

Caimchins, an order of monks, established A. D. 1528. It is a branch 
of the order o^ Franciscans, or Minorites, {fratres minores, \esser 
or inferior brethren ; so called by their founder, in token of humili- 
ty,) which was established by St. Francis, of Assisi, a town in Italy, 
in 1208. The order was distinguished by vows of absolute pover- 
ty, and a renunciation of all worldly learning and pleasure. To 
beg and to preach was to be the duty of its members. The whole 
number of Franciscans and Capuchins, in the eighteenth century, 
was one hundred and fifteen thousand, in seven thousand convents. 
But there are now probably not more than one third of that num- 
ber, as the order has been suppressed, in many countries. 

Cardinal, a dignitary of the Roman Catholic Church, next in dignity 
to the Pope, and having the right to vote in the election of Pope. 
One of their badges, or distinctive articles of dress, is a hat, of red 
or violet, with silk strings and tassels. 

Carlsiadt, a contemporary of Luther, and a zealous and violent Re- 
former. His real name was Andrew Bodenstein ; and he was call- 
ed Carlstadt, from the city of that name, in Germany, where he was 
born. He was professor of theology at Wittenberg, (a German 
town, on the Elbe, in Saxony,) and was included, in 1520, in the 
bull which condemned Luther. He boldly appealed from the Pope, 
and declared in favor of the marriage of priests. But his violence 
in instigating the people to destroy the altars, pictures, and images 
of the saints, in the churches, caused Luther to be greatly displeas- 
ed, and led to a division between them. He afterwards commenc- 
ed a controversy with Luther, respecting the sacrament, which was 
carried on with much bitterness. He was subsequently reduced 
to great distress, and was relieved by Luther, whom, however, he 
treated with ingratitude. He died, about A. D. 1542, at Basle, 
(Switzerland,) where he had been professor of theology for ten 
years. 

Carthage, an ancient wealthy and commercial city, in Africa, on the 
Mediterranean, founded by a colony from Tyre, in Phoenicia. It 
was, for a longtime, a formidable enemy to Rome, and several wars 
were carried on between them, which ended in the destruction of 
Carthage by the younger Scipio, B. C. 146. Few traces of its site 
now remain. 

Carthaginian, belonging to, or an inhabitant of, Carthage. 

Carystian, belonging to Carystus, (now Carysto,) a town on the 
southerly shore of Euboea, a large island of Greece, lying north 
easterly from Attica. 

Casemates, vaults under the main wall of a fortress, especially in the 
bastions, made bomb-proof, and serving to defend the moat, or 
trench, outside of the wall. They also afford facilities in making 
countermines, {which see,) and serve as places for keeping cannon 
and balls, or as habitations for the soldiers. 

Casta fws, a distinguished Spanish general, who was defeated by the 

r>0 G. E 



350 GLOSSARY. 

French in a battle fought in November, 1808, at Tudela, a town of 
Spain. 

Castile, see Aragonese. 

Catalonia, a province in the northeast part of Spain, bordering on 
France and on the Mediterranean. It is not remarkable for fertility ; 
but it is so for the industry of its inhabitants and its advancement in 
manufactures, agriculture, and commerce. 

Cato, Marcus Porcius, a celebrated Roman, born B. C. 232 ; re- 
markable for his temperance, and the severity of his morals. He 
served in all the high offices of state, and was a courageous and pru- 
dent general. His enmity to Scipio commenced in early life, and 
lasted till death. A work on agriculture, by Cato, is still extant. 
He was the great-grandfather of that Cato who was the contempora- 
ry of Caesar and Cicero. He was surnamed the Censor, from his 
having exercised that office, and to distinguish him from other mem- 
bers of the same family. 

Caudine Forks, (now Avellino,) a mountain pass, near Caudium, a 
town of Samnium. See page 43. 

Celano, a town in the kingdom of Naples, (Italy,) near a lake of the 
same name. 

Cellini, Benvenuto, a sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith, born at Flor- 
ence, in 1500, where he died in 1570. He was distinguished for 
his works in gold and silver. His life was an eventful one, and he 
has left an account of it, by himself. He was bold and honest, but 
vain and quarrelsome. 

Censor, the title of a magistrate in ancient Rome, whose duty it was 
to keep a register of the number of people, and of their fortunes, to 
regulate the taxes, and to watch over the public morals and manners. 
Two censors were elected every five years. 

Ceres, one of the goddesses of ancient mythology, presiding over agri- 
culture. The temple of Ceres Amphictyonis, (the Ceres of Amphic- 
tyon,) at Anthela, was probably so called, from a tradition that her 
worship was established there by Amphictyon. 

Chagan, the appellation of the king or ruler of the Avares or Avari, 
a barbarous, but warlike tribe, who formerly flourished in Europe, 
and at the time of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, 
their dominion extended over what is now Hungary, Poland, Prus- 
sia, and the eastern regions of Germany. 

Chalcocondyles, Nicholas, of Athens, one of the 'Byzantine histori- 
ans,' as they are called, a series of Greek authors, whose works re- 
late to the history of the Byzantine empire, from the fourth century 
till the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. 

Chapter, a name given to an assembly of the members of a religious 
order, or of church dignitaries, for deliberating on their affairs, and 
regulating their discipline ; so called, because one or more chapters, 
containing the rules of the order, were read there. 

Charles V., Emperor of Germany and King of Spain, (in which ca- 
pacity he was called Charles the First,) a contemporary of Henry 
the Eighth of England and of Francis the First of France, the latter 
of whom was his rival in the contest for the imperial throne. He 
was born February 24, 1500. In 1556, he resigned his thrones, in 



GLOSSARY. 351 

favor of his son Philip, and died in a monastery to which he had 
retired, September 21, 1558. For an account of the war which he 
carried on against Pope Clement the Seventh, see page 234, &c. 

Chilon, or Chilo, a philosopher of Sparta, who died B. C, 597. 

Chios, (now Scio,) one of the largest islands of the Grecian Archipel- 
ago, near the coast of Asia Minor. 

Chosroes II., (the grandson of Chosroes the First,) a King of Persia, 
who came to the throne A. D. 590. He wnged war upon Heracli- 
us. Emperor of the East, (the Byzantine empire,) and besieged Con- 
stantinople, in 625. Heraclius penetrated into Persia, and destroyed 
the palace of Chosroes, who was dethroned by one of his sons, and 
imprisoned, after eighteen of his sons had been slain before his eyes. 
He died in 628. 

Christendom, a term applied to those countries (taken collectively) 
where Christianity is the prevailing religion. 

Cinque Ports, the name given, by way of distinction, to five seaports 
of England, (so called from the French, ciiiq, five,) to which, in the 
reign of William the Conqueror, peculiar privileges were granted, on 
certain conditions of maritime service. These five ports are Dover, 
Sandwich, Hithe, Hastings, and Romney, to which have been at- 
tached Winchelsea, Rye, and Seaford. They have now lost much 
of their old importance as harbors, but still retain many of the privi- 
leges with which they were formerly endowed. 

Circumvallation, the formation of lines of fortification round a place 
intended to be besieged. These lines are sometimes so formed, as 
to afford defence both from an assault on the side nearest to the 
besieged town, and from an attack on the opposite side, by parties 
marching to relieve the place. 

Cissians, a people anciently inhabiting the region just north of the 
Gulf of Persia. 

Claudius, (Q,uintus,) a Roman historian, who lived about B.C. 70. 
None of his works are extant. There were many other celebrated 
Romans of the name of Claudius, which was common to a large and 
noble family. 

Clement VII., (Julius of Medici,) was made Pope in 1523, and died 
in 1534, at the age of fifty-six. For an account of the origin of the 
difficulties between him and Charles the Fifth, Emperor of Germa- 
ny, see page 235, and for the history of the most eventful period in 
his life, see the whole account of the 'Sack of Rome,' pages 237- 
269. 

Cleopatra, a Queen of Egypt, very celebrated for her beauty, wit, and 
elegance of manners, which fascinated Julius Caesar, and, after his 
death, Mark Antony, who was now, with Octavius Caesar and Le- 
pidus, possessed of the government of Rome. War broke out be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, but the latter was too much engrossed 
with the allurements of the Egyptian Queen, to make the requisite 
preparations for the war. After some delay, a naval battle was 
fought between them, at Aclium, (which see.) After Antony's 
death, Cleopatra killed herself, (B. C. 30,) by the bite of an asp, 
that she might not fall into the hands of Octavius, and be carried in 
triumph to Rome. 



352 GLOSSARY. 

Clerk, a term generally used, in former times, in the same sense in 
which we now employ the word clergyman, and still so used in le- 
gal instruments. 

Cockboat, a small boat belonging to a ship, 

Columbus, (Christopher,) the discoverer of America, was born about 
1435, and died in 1506. For his Life, see ' The School, Libra- 
ry,' Vol. i.. Larger Series, and Vol. xi., Juvenile Series. 

Comitium, a part of the Roman Forum, where certain assemblies of 
the people were held. It was covered with a roof, and adorned with 
paintings, statues, and columns. 

Confession, Confessor, see Auricular confession. 

Conscript Fathers, the title by which the Roman Senate was ad- 
dressed. The origin of the term is as follows. Those whom Bru- 
tus {see page 347,) chose into the senate, to supply the places of the 
senators whom Tarquin the Proud had slain, he called conscripiiy 
that is, persons writteii or enrolled together with the old senators, 
who were styled patres, (fathers.) Afterwards, the term patres 
conscripti (conscript fathers) was extended to the whole body. 

Consistory, the council of state under the Roman emperors ; also the 
highest council of state in the Papal government. The term is also 
applied to high ecclesiastical councils in Protestant countries. 

Constance, a city of Switzerland, on Lake Constance, celebrated as the 
seat of the council held A. D. 1414-18, at which Huss and Jerome 
of Prague were condemned. The council was summoned by Sigis- 
mund, Emperor of Germany, for the purpose of settling some diffi- 
culties in the Roman Church, in regard to the choice of Pope, and 
for stopping the diffusion of the doctrines of Huss. It was a numer- 
ous and imposing assembly. The German Emperor, the Pope, 
twenty-six princes, one hundred and forty counts, more than twenty 
cardinals, seven patriarchs, twenty archbishops, ninety-one bishops, 
six hundred other clerical dignitaries and doctors, and about four 
hundred priests, were present. 

Constantine, and Constantinople. Constantino, (the Great,) who 
was Emperor of Rome from A. D. 306 to 337, laid, in 329, the 
foundations of a new capital of the empire, at Byzantium, in Thrace, 
upon the Bosphorus. This city, which had been almost destroyed 
by one of his predecessors, he rebuilt, and adorned with various 
public buildings, calling it after his own name ; (in Greek, ICovarav- 
rivov no/Lig, Constantinou polis, the city of Constantine.) It was the 
capital and residence of the Byzantine emperors, till its conquest by 
the Turks, in 1453, (see pages 111-140,) at which time, Constan- 
tine PalcEologus (the last of the Roman and Greek emperors) was 
Emperor, having succeeded his brother, John Palseologus, in 1445. 
Constantinople has been, since that conquest, the capital of the 
Turkisji sultans. It contains, with its suburbs, from six hundred 
thousand to one million inhabitants. 

Consul, the title of the two highest magistrates in the Roman republic, 
which was also retained by certain high officers under the emperors. 
The government by consuls continued, with slight interruptions, 
from B. C. 509 to B. C. 59. Two consuls were elected annuallv 
The word signifies adviser, counsellor. 



GLOSSARY. 353 

Convent, a house devoted to the residence of monks or nuns ; called, 
in the former case, a monastery ; in the latter, a nunnery. 

Coos, or Cos, (now Stanco, and by corruption Lanjo or Lango, as it 
is called on page 180,) an island in the Archipelago, about twelve 
miles from the shore of Asia, and about seventy miles in circumfer- 
ence. 

Corinthians, inhabitants of Corinth, a city of Greece, upon the isth- 
mus of Corinth, (which separates the Morea from the main conti- 
nent.) It was anciently a city of great magnificence and luxury, 
but only a few ruins of its former splendor now remain. There was 
formerly a flourishing Christian church here, to which St. Paul wrote 
two Epistles. 

Cornelian family , an illustrious family of Rome, the different branch- 
es of which bore the name of Cornelius. The Scipios were of this 
family. 

Corps de reserve, (French,) a body of troops kept out of battle, and 
reserved, in order to be brought up, if the troops in action are beat- 
en, or thrown into disorder, or cannot follow up their victory. 

Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean, about fifty miles from Italy, 
and one hundred from France. Napoleon Bonaparte was a native 
of Ajaccio, in this island, and is hence frequently spoken of as ' the 
Corsican.' 

Cortege, (French,) a train, retinue. 

C ounterb alter y , see Battery. 

Countermine. In besieging a fortress, subterranean passages, called 
mines, are sometimes dug under the walls or buildings by the besieg- 
ers, for the purpose of blowing them up by gunpowder. The troops 
employed for this purpose are called sappers and nii?iers. The 
mines of the fortress itself, made to oppose the subterranean move- 
ments of the enemy, are called countermines. The explosion of 
powder in a mine is termed springing a mine. 

Counterscarp, the outer slope of the ditch which surrounds a fortifica- 
tion ; or that slope nearest the field. The term is sometimes applied 
to the covered way and the glacis. The covered way is a space of 
ground on the edge of the ditch, toward the field, ranging round the 
works. Outside of the covered way, rises a breastwork of earth, 
which descends, by a gentle slope, called the glacis, toward the field. 

Crete, see Candiotes. 

Criton, a friend and disciple of Socrates. 

Crossbow, a weapon for shooting, much used in war before the inven- 
tion of firearms. It is a strong wooden or steel bow, fastened to a 
stock, crosswise, and shot off by a trigger fixed to the stock. 

Curtain, see Bastion. 

Cyprus, nn island in the Mediterranean, south of Asia Minor, famous, 
in ancient times, for its fertility and its fine climate. The island was 
in the possession of the Venetians from 1473 till 1571, when it fell 
into the hands of the Turks, its present rulers. 

Cythera, (now Cerigo,) a rocky island near the southern shore of 
Greece. 

Cyzicus, formerly an island, now a peninsula, on the south side of the 
aea of Marmora. 

30* 



354 GLOssARr. 

Darius, the name of several Persian kings. The one referred to in 
this Volume is Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and father of Xerxes, 
who reigned about B. C 500. 

Del/, (properly Delft,) a city of the Netherlands, in the province of 
South Holland, between Rotterdam and Leyden, containing about 
fourteen thousand inhabitants. 

Delos, (now Dili, Sdili, or Ilegi,) an island in the Archipelago, cele- 
brated, in ancient times, as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana. It 
contained a magnificent temple, dedicated to Apollo, erected at the 
joint expense of all the Grecian states, and was celebrated for its 
oracle. The island is now covered with the ruins of its ancient 
works of architecture. 

Demons, spirits intermediate between gods and mortals ; conveying to 
men the commands of the gods ; to the gods, the prayers of men. 
Each mortal was supposed to have a particular demon, -who accom- 
panied him till death. The word is derived from the Greek Saluoiv, 
daimon, intelligent, wise. Socrates and the other Grecian philoso 
phers believed in these beings called demons. 

Depot, {depot, French,) a place of deposit, whether of munitions of 
war, troops, or merchandise. 

Dervish, (or dervise,) the name of a class of religious persons in Asia, 
denoting the same among the Mohammedans as monk among Chris- 
tians. 

Dictator, a magistrate of ancient Rome, appointed only upon extraor- 
dinary occasions, and holding his office for a limited time. Upon 
the occurrence, of any emergency, such as the near approach of an 
enemy, or the like, when a greater degree of energy in the govern- 
ment was required than was consistent with the limited powers of 
the regular magistrates, a dictator was appointed, with almost abso- 
lute power, who held his office until the period of national danger 
was past. Sometimes, a dictator was created for some purposes of 
form, such as holding an election. The officer next in rank to the 
dictator was called master of the horse, and held his office only so 
long as the dictatorship continued. 

Diet, the grand council of the German empire. (See pages 141, 142.) 

Divan, the highest council of state among the Turks ; so called from 
the council-chamber where the ministers of state meet ; and that 
derives its name from the divan or couch which surrounds it. 

Doric dialect. The language of ancient Greece was marked by four 
principal varieties or dialects, the Attic, Ionic, Doric, and JEoUc, 
prevailing in different parts of Greece and her colonies. The Doric 
dialect was broad and rough, yet possessed of a certain dignity ; the 
Ionic was delicate and smooth. The Attic, being used in Athens, 
the seat of refinement and science, became,, at last, the prevailing 
dialect. 

Dorset, a pannier ; a basket or bag, one of which hangs on either side 
of a beast of burden, for the reception of things of small bulk. 

Drake, Sir Francis, a distinguished English navigator and naval com- 
mander, who was born in 1545, and died in 1696. He undertook 
various privateering expeditions against the Spanish possessions in 
America, and being successful, was furnished by Queen Elizabeth 



GLOSSARY. 35(> 

with ships and means for further expeditions. He commanded, as 
vice-admiral of the British fleet, in the conflict with the Spanish Ar- 
mada, in 1588. 

Ducas, one of the Byzantine historians, (see Chalcocondyles,) who, 
after the conquest of Constantinople, wrote a history of the empire, 
from A. D. 1341 to 1462. 

Ebro, a river of Spain, flowing into the Mediterranean. 

Echecrates, a disciple of Socrates. 

Edile, a Roman magistrate, of secondary rank, having charge of pub- 
lic games, public buildings, and of the market. 

Eisenach, a town in Germany, near the mountains of Thuringia. 

Elector, a title given to certain princes of the German empire, who 
elected the Emperor. The empire ended in 1806. Under the pres- 
ent German confederacy, the title is held by but one prince, and has 
lost its original meaning. 

Ems, a town in the duchy of Nassau, (Germany,) remarkable for its 
mineral waters. 

Ennius, (Q,uintus,) a Latin poet, who flourished about B. C. 200, and 
was an intimate friend of the elder Scipio Africanus. Of his nu- 

' merous works, only fragments remain. 

Entlibuch, a Swiss town in the canton of Lucerne. 

Entrails, the interior parts of the body. The ancient soothsayers in- 
spected particularly the liver, and other organs in the cavity of the 
chest, which, as well as the intestines, are comprehended under the 
above term. 

Epirot, an inhabitant of Epirus, a province in the northwest part of 
Greece, now a part of Albania. 

Equinoxes, those two periods of the year, when the days and nights 
are of the same length throughout the globe. 

Etruria, (no\^ Tuscany,) a region of ancient Italy, on the Mediterra- 
nean, bounded southerly by the Tiber. The inhabitants, called 
Etrurians, or Etruscans, (now Tuscans,) were remarkable for their 
skill in the useful and elegant arts. 

Eumenes, a King of Pergamus, (a kingdom in Asia Minor,) who 
reigned from B. C. 263 to 241, and v^as an ally of the Romans. 

Euripides , one of the three most eminent Greek tragic poets, born 
B. C. 480, on the day of the battle of Salamis, at which yEschylus 
fought. His tragedies (of which nineteen remain out of eighty or 
ninety) were remarkable for brilliancy and beauty, but somewhat 
lax in the tone of their morality, though abounding in graceful moral 
sentences. He was a few years younger than Sophocles, and was 
his rival for the prizes at the public games. 

Fasces, see Lictors. 

Fascines, bundles of boughs, twigs, &c., about sixteen feet long and 
one foot in diameter, used in sieges, for filling up ditches which are 
to be crossed. 

Felucca, a large boat, like a brigantine, {which see.) 

Feodary, (plural feodaries,) one who holds an estate under tenure 
(or condition) of performing certain services to a superior lord, such 
as attending upon him in war, with a certain number of armed vas- 
sals, &c. 



356 GLOSSARY. 

Ferdinand V., of Aragon, the father of Catharine, wife of Henry the 
Eighth, of England. He was born in 1453. He married Isabella, 
Q,ueen of Castile, and thus laid the foundation of the union of the 
different Spanish kingdoms. The reign of these princes is remarka- 
ble for the discovery of America, the establishment of the Inquisi- 
tion, and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Ferdinand pos- 
sessed many great qualities, but was bigoted and tyrannical. 

Feudal. The feudal systetn, as it is called, prevailed in Europe 
during the middle ages, (from the fifth to the fifteenth century.) 
According to this system, estates were held upon certain conditions 
of service. (See Feodary.) The nobleman was the feodary or 
vassal of his prince ; the soldier or the farmer, of his lord. 'Ry feu- 
dal notions is meant the opinions current during the times when this 
system prevailed. 

Filing, a military phrase, which generally means, moving in a single 
line, and not abreast ; but may be used simply to signify march- 
ing. 

Firepot, a small earthen pot, containing a grenade, {which see,) cov- 
ered with powder. The pot is covered with parchment, on which 
are placed two lighted matches. When the pot is thrown, it is 
broken, the powder is fired, and the grenades explode. 

Flank, in fortification, is that part of a work, which affords a lateral 
defence to another. In a bastion, the flanks are those lines which 
join the main wall. 

Fleming, (plural Flemings^ ox Flemish,) a native of Flanders, a prov- 
ince in the southwestern part of the Netherlands, bordering on France 
and on the German Ocean. 

Florentine, an inhabitant or native of Florence, the capital of the grand 
duchy of Tuscany, (Italy,) a city of seventy-five thousand inhabit- 
ants, situated on the River Arno, and remarkable for its valuable 
collections of works of art. 

Flulen, or Fluelen, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz. 
Here is William Tell's chapel, referred to on page 85. 

Foragers, parties of soldiers, sent out to obtain supplies of fodder for 
the horses, or provisions for the army. 

Forum, among the Romans, meant any open public place where mar- 
kets and courts of justice were held. The great Forum in Rome 
was a splendid place, used for assemblies of the people, for trials, 
and for the transaction of public business. It was oblong, was sur- 
rounded with porticoes, and adorned with columns and statues. It 
is now almost a waste, but is covered with the ruins of its ancient 
magnificence. 

Fosse, (plural/bsses,) a ditch, particularly that which surrounds a for- 
tified place. 

Francis /., King of France, born A. D. 1494, and died A. D. 1547. 
He was the contemporary of Charles the Fifth, of Spain, and Henry 
the Eighth, of England ; was an unsuccessful conjpetitor with the 
former for the imperial throne of Germany, and was afterwards al- 
most continually at war with him. He was a Prince of a noble and 
enterprising spirit, remarkable for his love and protection of litera- 
ture and the arts, and possessed every qualification for reigning well. 



GLOSSARY. 357 

had he been content to reign in peace, instead of being engaged in 
almost perpetual wars. 

Franciscans, see Capuchin. 

French Academy, see Academy. 

French Revolution, the tJverthrow of royal power in France, and the 
establishment of a republic, in 1792. The destruction of the Bas- 
tille, (a fortified prison,) the deposition and execution of King Louis 
the Sixteenth, and the massacres of the royalists during the period 
called the reign of terror, are among the most prominent acts of this 
great tragic drama. 

FreybiiTg, or Friburg, a town of Baden, (in Germany,) formerly 
capital of the Breisgau, (ivhich see,) containing about ten thousand 
inhabitants. 

Fuller, (Thomas,) an English historian and divine, best known for his 
* Worthies of England,' a biographical work, full of information and 
anecdote, written in a quaint style. His other writings were nu- 
merous. He died in 1661. 

Galata, the name of one of the suburbs of Constantinople. 

Galleases, the largest sort of galleys, formerly employed by the Ve- 
netians, being about one hundred and sixty-two feet long and thir- 
ty-two wide, having three masts, and sixty-four oars, each one 
managed by six or seven slaves, who were chained to it. 

Galley, a low, flat-built vessel, much in use on the Mediterranean, 
furnished with one deck, and navigated with sails and oai's. 

Galliot, a small, swift galley, designed for chase. The rowers are 
soldiers, and each has a musket beside him. 

Gallow glasses, a kind of soldiers among the Irish, in former times. 

Gaul, (Latin Gallia,) the ancient name of France. Gaul, (plural 
Gauls,) also signifies a native of Gallia. (See Camillus.) 

Gaunt, an antiquated mode of writing Ghent, which see. 

Gennadius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, at the time of its con- 
quest by the Turks. He died about A. D. 1460. 

Genoese, natives of Genoa, a dukedom (formerly a republic) in the 
northwest of Italy, on the Mediterranean, having a capital city of 

• the same name. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the 
Genoese were the most flourishing commercial people of Europe. 

Genseric, a King of the Vandals, (which see,) who invaded Italy, 
A. D. 455, and plundered the city of Rome, taking possession of 
all the treasures and works of art which had been left by the Goths. 
He was prevailed upon to spare the city from slaughter and confla- 
gration. He was a prince of great ability and bravery. 

George L was King of Great Britain from 1714, till his death, in 
1727, at the age of sixty-eight. He was a great-grandson of James 
the First of England, was a German by birth, and was Elector of 
Hanover, (now a kingdom of Germany,) both before and after his 
accession to the English throne. He was a plain, simple, and sen- 
sible, man. 

German mile, about four English miles. 

Gersau, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Unterwalden. It is 
the capital of a district of about six square miles, which was former- 
ly independent, and the smallest free state in Europe. 



358 GLOSSARY. 

Ghenty the capital of East Flanders, (one of the provinces of the Neth 
eriands,) a city of about sixty thousand inhabitants, and formerly of 
great importance and wealth. 

Ghibelline. A war was carried on in Italy and Germany in the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, between two parties, or factions, 
called the Guelphs and the Gldbellines ; the former of which 
fought for the supremacy of the Popes and the independence of the 
cities of Italy, and the latter supported the cause of the Emperors 
of Germany. 

Glaris, or Glartis, a canton of Switzerland, with a capital town of 
the same name. 

Goths, a German tribe, from the shores of the Baltic, who, by suc- 
cessive conquests, established, in the fourth century, a great king- 
dom, and became most formidable foes both to the Eastern and the 
Western empire of the Romans. They took and plundered Rome 
under their King, Alaric, A. D. 410, and again under Totila, (which 
see.) 

Gottlieben, a town of Switzerland, three miles from Constance, where 
Huss was* confined in 1415. 

Gouda, a city of the Netherlands, on a branch of the Rhine, now a 
place of considerable trade, and remarkable for a large and hand- 
some church, the painted-glass windows of which are supposed to 
be the finest in Europe. 

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, (see pages 63 and 69,) was the 
son-in-law of Scipio Africanus, and father of the two celebrated 
Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius. The former of these early made 
himself conspicuous in military service. He then became tribune 
of the people, and bent all his effbrts to advance his plans for the 
improvement of their condition. These plans drew upon him the 
enmity of the senate and of the patrician parly ; and he was slain 
in a civil tumult, B. C. 133, The career and fate of Caius were 
similar. These brothers were educated by their mother, Cornelia, 
a woman of great ability and excellence, the daughter of Scipio, 
who, when requested to show her jewels, produced her two sons, 
saying, " These are my jewels, the only ones of which I can boast." 

Grand Signior, a title of the Sultan of the Turkish Empire. 

Grand Cross, one of the titles of honor, in the orders of Knighthood. 

Gratz, the chief town in Stiria, (a province of Austria,) containing a 
population of thirty-four thousand. 

Grenada, or grenade, a bomb of small diameter, (see Bombardment,) 
wLich is either thrown by hand, or discharged from cannon, accord- 
ing to its size. 

Haerlem, a city of the Netherlands, capital of the province of North 
Holland, about three miles from the sea. Population about twenty 
thousand. 

Halberd, a batlleaxe ftistened to the end of a long pole. 

Halfmoon, an outwork of a fortification, composed of two faces uni- 
ting in a projecting angle, the entrance to which, from the fortress, 
is in the shape of a halfmoon. It is now called a Ravelin. 

Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general, and a most formidable 
enemy of the Romans, born B. C. 243, and died B. C. 183. His 



GLOSSARY. 859 

passage o\oT the Alps, for the invasion of Italy, in Winter, is one 
of the most remarkable military exploits of antiquity. He main- 
tained an army for sixteen years in Italy, and Rome itself was 
once in imminent danger of falling into his hands. He was recal- 
led, however, by the Carthaginian senate, to Africa, and was there 
defeated by Scipio Africanus. Obliged by the machinations of his 
enemies to leave Carthage, he went successively to the courts of 
two Asiatic kings, and at last poisoned himself, to prevent his being 
delivered into the hands of the Romans. 

Hapsburg^ or Habsburg, a small place in Switzerland, in the district 
of Aargau. The proprietors of it became Counts of Hapsburg, and 
gradually enlarged their territory. Rodolph of Hapsburg was cho- 
sen Emperor of Germany, A. D. 1273. He was the founder of the 
present reigning house of Austria. 

Harem, among the Mussulmans, signifies the women's apartments, 
which no man but the husband is permitted to enter. 

Harquebusiers, see Arquebusiers. 

Hellespont, (improperly called the Dardanelles, from two ancient 
castles at its entrance, one on each side,) a strait between Europe 
and Asia, connecting the sea of Marmora with the Archipelago. 

Helot, a Spartan slave. The helots did not belong to individuals, 
but were the property of the state, and assigned to their several 
masters. They were sometimes employed in military service, in 
cases of necessity. Agriculture and all mechanical arts, at Sparta, 
were in their hands. 

Henneburg, formerly a principality in Germany, now divided among 
other states, 

Henry VIII., King of England, was born A. D. 1491, and came to 
the throne in 1509. His reign is remarkable for the spread of the 
principles of the Reformation, in England, which was in a great 
measure owing to the breaking off, by Henry, of his allegiance to 
the Pope. The Pope had excommunicated the King, (that is, de- 
clared him to be deprived of the privileges of Christia-n commu- 
nion,) on account of his marriage with Ann Boleyn ; and Henry 
declared himself the supreme head of the English Church. He 
was passionate and intolerant, inhuman and arbitrary, fond of 
power, and inconstant in his affections. He died in 1547. 

Herald, an officer whose business it is (among other duties) to reg- 
ulate and arrange public ceremonies. In ancient times, it was his 
duty, also, to proclaim war and peace, 

Hercules, di celebrated hero of antiquity, fabled to be a son of Jupiter, 
by Alcmena, a mortal mother. The ancient poets embodied in 
Hercules the ideas of personal strength, perseverance, and valor. 
After achieving a series of the most remarkable " labors," he was 
numbered, after death, with the gods. His death was caused by 
putting on a poisoned dress sent him by his wife Dejanira, (who 
was jealous ;) and while suff'ering from the effects of this poison, 
he caused a funeral pile to be constructed, ascended it, and was 
consumed. 

Hexameter verses, in ancient poetry, are verses consisting of six meas- 
ures, or feet, each of which consists of two or three syllables. 



360 GLOSSARY. 

Hindoos, the primitive inhabitants of the East Indies ; a very ancient 
nation, distinguished for their humanity, gentleness, and industry, 
and remarkable for their civilization, and their advancement in let- 
ters and arts, at a time when most other nations of Asia, and even 
Europe, had made very little progress in them. 

Hippodrome, see Atmeidan. 

Holy Land, see Palestine. 

Homer, an ancient Greek poet, the most distinguished of all antiquity, 
who lived about the ninth century before Christ. His great poems 
are, the * Iliad,' describing the most stirring scenes of the war of the 
Greeks against Troy, and the ' Odyssey,' the adventures of Ulys- 
ses, one of the Grecian heroes. The phrase, Homeric grace, sig- 
nifies a grace like that of Homer, whose poems are full of graceful- 
ness and beauty. 

Host, (from the Latin hostia, a victim,) signifies, in the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, the xoafer, or bread, used in the sacrament of the 
Lord's Supper. The "elevation of the host" is the raising of it, 
and of the cup containing the wine, to receive the homage of the 
people, as the body and blood of Jesus Christ. 

Hyllus, a son of Hercules, and mentioned in this Volume as one of 
the ancestors of Leonidas, King of Sparta. He was killed in single 
combat, by Echemus, King of Arcadia. 

Imam, a Turkish priest. 

Imperialist, one attached to the party of an Emperor. 

Indulgence, the pardon or remission of sin, which, in the Roman 
Catholic system, the Church claims power to grant. The sale of 
indulgences was one of the causes which led to the Reformation. 
The Popes, to replenish an exhausted treasury, sold them, not only 
as pardons for sins committed, but as permits for sins to be contruit- 
ted ; and this flagrant abuse awakened the indignation of liuss, 
Luther, and all the early Reformers. 

Infanta, the title of the princes of the royal families of Spain and Por- 
tugal. 

Infidel, a term applied by the Mohammedans to all who do not em- 
brace the religion of Mohammed, including Christians ; by Chris- 
tians, it is applied to all who do not believe in Christianity. 

Ingot, a small bar of metal. Gold and silver are usually cast in in- 
gots. 

Interregnum, (from the Latin inter, between, and regnum, reign,) 
the period intervening between two reigns, where the succession is 
interrupted. The Romans employed the term while the republic 
was in existence, to denote any interruption in the regular succes- 
sion of chief magistrates. The magistrate, ruling during the interval, 
was called an interrex, (from inter, and rex, a king.) 

Ionic dialect, see Doric dialect. 

Islam, or Islamism, *' the true faith," according to the Mohamme- 
dans ; the religion of Mussulmans, or believers in the divine apos- 
tleship of Mohammed. 

Janizuries, a corps of Turkish soldiers, forming the flower of the 
Sultan's troops and his body-guard. It was formed about the mid- 
dle of the fourteenth century, and abolished ia 1S26. The Janiza- 



GLOSSARY. 361 

ries had a peculiar discipline and organization , and were a most for- 
midable soldiery. 

Jerusalem, a celebrated city of Palestine, long the capital of the 
kingdom of the Jews, and the seat of their sacred temple. It is 
now under the government of the Turkish pacha of Damascus. It 
contains a population variously estimated at from fifteen to twenty 
thousand inhabitants, one half of whom are Mohammedans, one 
sixth Jews, and the rest Christians. Numerous pilgrims still resort 
to * the Holy City.' In ' the church of the Holy Sepulchre,' which 
has been a consecrated spot for fifteen hundred years, is shown the 
pretended ' tomb of Christ,' in a richly-ornamented subterranean 
apartment. 

John Palceologus, see Constantinople. 

Juno, in ancient mythology, the sister and wife of Jupiter, and, next 
to him, the most exalted and powerful of the gods. 

Junta, (Spanish, an assembly,) a high council of state, in Spain. In 

1808, besides a central junta, there was, in every province, not 
subjugated by the French, a provincial junta, subject to the cen- 
tral one. 

Knight, one who has received the honor of knighthood, which was, 
in the middle ages, the highest rank of chivalry ; and, in the later 
periods of that institution, was only conferred on men of noble 
birth. 

Konigsfelden, a Swiss bailiwick, in the canton of Berne. 

Kussnacht, a town of Schwytz, in Switzerland, near which is a chap- 
el, erected on the spot where Tell slew Gessler. 

Laced(Bmonians, the inhabitants of Lacedcemon^ or Sparta, one of 
the most powerful states of ancient Greece, situated in the south- 
westerly part of Peloponnesus. The city of Sparta, or Lacedsemon, 
which gave its name to the state, was properly the capital of Laco- 
nia, (the name of the whole district governed by the Spartans.) 
The Spartans were remarkable for valor, simplicity, and contempt 
of luxury ; were early inured to fatigue and exposure, and taught 
to endure pain with firmness. They despised learning, and exclu- 
ded it from the education of the young. 

Landamman, the highest magistrate of a Swiss canton ; the governor 
of a district. 

Landgrave, a German title of nobility ; a count. 

Landsknecht, (German,) a common foot soldier. 

Landvogt, (see Bailiff.) 

Lango, or Lanjo, a corruption of Stance, the modern name of the 
Island of Coos or Cos, which see. 

Language, a division of the order of Knights Hospitallers, for an ex- 
planation of which, see page 160. 

Lasnes, (usually spelt Lannes,) John, a distinguished French officei 
in the armies of Napoleon, born in 1769. He was a favorite of the 
Emperor, and was created Marshal of the empire and Duke of Mon- 
tebello. He obtained a brilliant renown in the war in Spain. He 
lost both legs by a cannon shot, in the campaign against Austria in 

1809, and died in a few days. 

La(i».?»the people oi Latium, an important country of ancient Italy, 
31 G. E. 



362 GLOSSARY. 

on the Mediterranean, south of the Tiber, which separated it from 
Etruria. 

Legatine court, a court at which a legate presides. 

Lemnos, (now Stalimene,) a fertile island, containing about one hun- 
dred and forty-seven square miles, in the naost northerly part of the 
Archipelago, or ^gean sea. 

Lenzburg, a town of Switzerland, in the district of Aargau, capital of 
a bailiwick, and now a place of some trade. 

Leon, (of Salamis,) a man eminent for his blameless life, but whose 
political opinions made him obnoxious to the Thirty Tyrants who 
then (B. C. 403-401) ruled Athens. In order to involve Socrates 
with him, the latter was appointed one of five, who were directed 
to proceed to Salamis, seize Leon, and bring him to Athens. This 
order, Socrates disobeyed, as contrary to law. 

Leonard of Chios, the author of a history of the capture of Constan- 
tinople by the Turks. 

Leonidas. For an account of this Spartan hero, see page 13. The 
list of his ancestors there given comprises the regular succession of 
kings of Sparta to Aristodemus, and thence of the descendants of 
Hercules, conquerors of Peloponnesus, to Hercules himself 

Lepanto, a seaport town in Greece, situated on a bay, anciently the 
gulf of Corinth, now the gulf of Lepanto. 

Leyden, see page 288. 

Libation, (literally, a pouring out,) an offering to the gods, of meat 
or drink, a kind of sacrifice. At feasts and domestic meals, among 
the ancients, a portion of food was often burned, and some wine 
poured out, as a libation to the gods. Hence the allusion of Soc- 
rates on page 38. 

Lichtenstein, now a sovereign principality, the smallest state of the 
German confederacy, of about fifty-three square miles, bordering on 
the Rhine. 

Lictors, public servants attendant upon the Roman magistrates. They 
were the executioners, and each carried an axe, tied up in a bundle 
of rods, called /asces. 

Liegeman, a subject. 

Liternum, (now Torre di Patria,) a town of Campania, in Italy, on 
the Mediterranean, a few miles northwest of Naples. 

Livy, see page 60. 

Locri, (now Motta di Bruzzano,) a town near the southern extremity 
of Italy, founded by a Grecian colony of Locrians. The inhabitants 
of Locris were also called Locri. 

Locrians, (or Locri,) the inhabitants o( Locris, a country of Middle 
Greece. There were several branches of Locrians, one of which 
inhabited a region lying on the gulf of Corinth ; others (one of 
which was called the Opuntian Locrians, from their chief town, 
Opus) bordered on a gulf of the JEgean Sea. 

Lom.bardy, a country in the north of Italy, between Switzerland and 
Tuscany. 

Loopholed, full of loopholes, that is, openings, or void spaces. 

Louis XL, King of France from 1461 to 1483. He was remarkable 
for treachery and cruelty ; and his ministers and companions were 



GLOSSARY. 363 

of the lowest classes. He was devotional, to a superstitious de- 
gree ; yet this did not prevent him from the commission of enor- 
mous crimes. His character, in other respects, was made up of 
the most opposing traits. The great effort of his life was to reduce 
the power of the feudal aristocracy, and make his own power ab- 
solute. 

Louis XVI.y King of France, was born in 1754, and perished on the 
scaffold, amid the horrors of the French Revolution, in 1793. He 
was a prince of great integrity of character, and benevolence of 
heart, but of great weakness and indecision of purpose ; without 
practical knowledge, at a time when great practical energy in the 
monarch was requisite ; and his private virtue was insufficient to 
maintain his throne. 

J,ouis XVIII., of France, brother of Louis the Sixteenth, was born 
in 1755, and came to the throne in 1814, on the abdication of Na 
poleon. He died in 1824. He resembled his brother in the hu 
manity and kindness of his character ; was attached to literary pur- 
suits, possessed much intellectual cultivation, and was of a mag- 
nanimous and noble spirit. 

Low Countries, see JVetherlands. 

Lowers, a village of the canton of Schwytz, in Switzerland. 

Luceria, a city of Apulia, in ancient Italy ; now Lucera, in the king 
dora of Naples, a city of eight thousand inhabitants, lying about sixty 
miles northeast from the city of Naples. 

Lucerne, one of the central cantons of Switzerland, with a capital city 
of the same name. It is one of the least mountainous parts of Swit- 
zerland. 

Lutherans, followers of the doctrines of Luther. 

Luther, (Martin,) the first and chief of the Reformers, born at Isle- 
ben, a town of Saxony, November 10, 1483. He became a monk 
of the order of St. Augustine, but soon after, threw off the cowl and 
the fetters of papal authority. He wrote and preached with great 
severity against the sale of indulgences, advocated the free perusal 
of the Scriptures, the suppression of monasteries, and the marriage 
of priests or ministers. He completed, in thirteen years, a transla- 
tion of the Bible into German, and published many powerful trea- 
tises on the doctrines of the Reformed faith. As a preacher, he was 
wise, practical, and eloquent. Possessed of a thorough knowledge 
of human nature, and of great sagacity, his courage was undaunt- 
ed, and his constancy unshaken, amid all the threats and attacks 
of the Pope and Roman Catholic clergy ; and nearly all Germany 
became ardently attached to his person and religious views. He 
died February 18, 1546, at the age of sixty-three years, after a 
long and painful illness. For an account of his appearance before 
the Diet of Worms, see pp. 141-157. 

Lycia, a province in the southern part of Asia Minor, bordering on the 
Mediterranean sea. 

Lysias, a celebrated Athenian orator, who flourished about B. C. 458. 
His orations (of which thirty-four, only, out of more than two hun- 

• dred, remain) are remarkable for elegance, simplicity, acuteness, 
and grace. 



S64 GLOSSARY. 

Macedonia, the northern part of the peninsula of Greece, now the 
southerly part of European Turkey. 

Madrid y the capital of Spain, near the centre of the kingdom, two 
hundred miles from the sea. 

Malta, an island in the Mediterranean, nearly opposite to the south 
angle of Sicily, about fifty miles distant. 

Manosque, a town in the southeastern part of France, near the Medi 
terranean. A commandery (one of the subdivisions) of the Order 
of Knights of Malta was formerly established here. 

Mansfield, Lord, (William Murray,) Chief Justice of the Court of 
King's Bench, in England, from 1756 to 1788. His Life, by 
Holliday, was published in 1797. 

Mantineans, inhabitants of Maniinea, an important city of Arcadia, 
(the central region of the Peloponnesus,) and which was ftiuious for 
a battle fought near it. 

Margrave, a German title of nobility ; a count or prince. 

Marseilles, an important commercial city of France, on the Mediter- 
ranean, containing about one hundred and twenty thousand inhabit- 
ants. 

Mass, the prayers and ceremonies, which, in the Roman Catholic 
Church, accompany the celebration of the eucharist, or sacrament 
of the Lord's Supper. Mass is said, on all public occasions of wor- 
ship. The saying of masses for the dead, a practice arising from the 
persuasion that souls could be saved from a part of the punishment 
for their sins, by a certain number of masses said, (which masses 
were paid for by the friends of the dead,) was one of the abuses 
which was denounced by the early Reformers. 

Master of the Horse, see Dictator. 

Mathesius, (John,) an historian, who sprung from a family prolific m 
learned men, and was born, A. D. 1505. He was for some time a 
domestic of Luther, and afterwards a German Protestant minister 
of Rochlic or Rochilz, a town of Saxony, and then for thirty years 
minister of the parish of Joachimsthal, (Joachim's Valley,) in Bo- 
hemia. He was the author of several works on Philosophy, a Life 
of Christ, Chronicles of Joachimsthal, a Life of Luther, and other 
works. He died October 7, 1565. 

Medes, inhabitants of Media, the most important province of the an- 
cient Persian empire, lying south of the Caspian sea. 

Medina Sidonia., a town in Andalusia, in Spain, near the straits of 
Gibraltar, and twenty-two miles southeast of Cadiz. It is the capi- 
tal of a duchy. 

Melampus, a celebrated soothsayer and physician, of the fabulous pe- 
riod of Grecian history. Marvellous powers were attributed to him, 
and divine honors paid him after death. 

Melians, inhabitants of Melts, a country lying on the Maliac (now 
the Zeiton) Gulf, a gulf of the Archipelago, south of Thessaly. 

Memoirs, see Academy. 

Meuse, a river, rising in France, and flowing into the German Ocean. 

Milanese territory, a country in the northeast part of Italy, formerly 
the duchy of Milan, now a part of Austrian Italy. The capital is 
Milan, a city of about one hundred and forty thousand inhabitants. 



GLOSSARY 365 

Miltiades, a celebrated Athenian general, who lived about B. C. 500. 
He was the commander at the battle of Marathon, B. C. 490, where 
the Persians were defeated by the Athenians and Platseans in a glo- 
rious victory, gained with a small force over one immensely supe- 
rior. 

Minaret, see Mosque. 

Mmerva, one of the principal deities of the Grecian and Roman my- 
thology, the daughter of Jupiter, and the goddess of wisdom, of war, 
and of the active and inventive arts of peace. 

Mines, see Countermines. 

Minorites, see Capuchins. 

Mohammed, the founder of a system of religion which has spread over 
a great part of the East. He was born at Mecca, in Arabia, about 
A. D. 569, and died at the age of sixty-three. Claiming to be a divine 
messenger from God, he obtained an immense ascendancy, which 
he increased by the power of the sword. He is reverenced by his 
followers, as the only true prophet of God. The believers in 
Mohammed are called Mohammedans, Mussulmans, or Moslems. 
Their number is estimated at about one hundred and twenty millions, 
being about half as great as the Christian population of the globe. 

Mohammed II., Sultan of the Turks, was son of Amurath the Second. 
He was born in 1430, and ascended the Turkish throne in 1451. 
His reign is memorable for the destruction of the Byzantine empire 
of the Romans, the most memorable scene of which, the fall of Con- 
stantinople, is described in this Volume, (pages 111-140.) See also 
page 160, for a comprehensive notice of this conqueror. He died in 
1481. 

Mole, see Breakwater. 

Moles, (Latin,) a mass, a pile. 

Monaco, a city of Italy, on the Mediterranean, northwest of Corsica, 
and capital of a small principality of the same name. 

Monks, Monastic voivs, see Religious Orders. 

Moorish, of the Moors, a people inhabiting northwestern Africa, par- 
ticularly the states of Morocco and Fez, and who possessed a large 
part of Spain, from the eighth to the fifteenth century. Learning and 
the arts flourished among them, and there are still remaining, in 
Spain, many monuments of their labors and their magnificence. 

Morea, (anciently called Peloponnesus,) the southern peninsula of 
Greece, from the continental part of which it is separated by the 
gulf of Lepanto and the gulf of Athens, and connected with it by the 
narrow isthmus of Corinth. 

Morgarten, a mountain of Schwytz, in Switzerland, where the Arch- 
duke Leopold, of Austria, with twenty thousand men, was defeated 
by sixteen hundred men from the forest districts of Schwytz, Uri, 
and Unterwalden, December 6, 1315. 

Morsburg, a town of Baden, (Germany,) on the Lake of Constance. 

Mosaics, imitations of paintings, by means of colored stones, pieces of 
glass, of marble, and even of wood, of different colors, cemented 
together. Works of all varieties of beauty and costliness are thus 
produced. 

Moslem, see Mohammed. 
31* 



366 GLOSSARY. 

Mosque, a Mohammedan house of prayer. Every mosque has one or 
more minarets, which are towers, from which the muezzin (crier) 
proclaims the hours, and summons the people to prayer. 

Mount Sinai, a mountain of Arabia, near the head of the Red Sea, 
celebrated in Jewish history as the spot where the law was given to 
Moses. 

Mussulman, see Mohammed. 

MycencB, a town of Argolis, the eastern province of Peloponnesus. 

JVabis, a cruel and oppressive tyrant of Lacedaemon, who reigned about 
the year B. C. 200. 

JVamaz, the sacrifice, or prayers with their ceremonies, which the 
Mussulmans are obliged to offer and perform five times a day. 

JVaples, a kingdom embracing the southern part of Italy, with a capital 
of the same name. 

JVapoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary warrior of modern times, 
born August 15, 1769, at Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica, and 
educated in the military schools of France. He rapidly rose from 
the station of an officer of artillery to that of Emperor of France, 
the throne of which he ascended in 1804. He was constantly en- 
gaged in war, and was victorious in all his battles, till towards the 
close of his career, when he suffered reverses, and finally, at the 
battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815, he was defeated, and gave him- 
self up to the English, by whom he was sent to the Island of St. He 
lena, where he remained a prisoner, till he died, May 5, 1821. The 
record of his various battles and other public operations, would alone 

, fill a volume ; and of course cannot here be enumerated. His mili- 
tary genius has hardly been rivalled in any age, and it may be truly 
said, that his victories were not so much the consequence of fortu- 
nate accidents, as the results of vast scientific combinations and cal- 
culations, executed with boldness and precision, France is indebted 
to him for a most elaborate and comprehensive code of laws, and for 
various public works of great national importance and surpassing 
magnificence. Measures have just been adopted, by the French gov- 
ernment, for the removal of his remains to France, to be deposited 
under a public monument. 

J\rassau, a duchy of Germany, bordering westerly on the Rhine 

JVavarre, formerly an independent kingdom, now a province in the 
northerly part of Spain, bordering on the southwest corner of France. 

JVether lands, also called the Low Countries, a kingdom of Europe, 
bordering on the North Sea, or German Ocean. 

JVtcholas v.. Pope of Rome, from 1447 to 1455. 

J\%cholas, St., a bishop in Asia Minor, in the reign of Constantiue the 
Great, remarkable for his piety and charity. He died about the 
year 392. He is regarded by the Russians, particularly, with great 
veneration. 

JVumantia, a very noble city of ancient Spain, which, with four thous- 
and men, held out a siege of fourteen years, against forty thousand 
Romans, but at last yielded, and was destroyed, B. C. 133. 

JVuremberg, a city of Bavaria, containing about thirty thousand inhab- 
itants. It was formerly a free and imperial city, twice as populous 
as at present. It is remarkable for its manufactures. 



GLOSSARY. 367 

Oberkircht a town of Baden, Germany. 

OdUf (Turkish, a chamber,) a class or order. The pages, or attend- 
ants, of the Sultan of Turkey, are divided into five chambers, or 
classes, called odas. 

Oecumenic, general ; universal. Certain councils of the Church, in 
the earlier centuries, were so called, because all the bishops of the 
Church were invited to them. 

(Etean Mountains^ or Mount (Eta, (now Baninay) a celebrated 
chain of mountains between Thessaly and Phocis, Doris, and ^Etolia, 
and running from the straits of Thermopylae and the Gulf of Malia, 
(or Lamia, now Gulf of Zeiton,) in a westerly direction, to Mount 
Pindus. It was upon this mountain, that Hercules burnt himself. 

Official, the person to whom the cognizance of causes is committed, 
by those who have ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 

Olympic games, one of the solemn festivals of the Greeks, held every 
four years, at Olympia, a town of ancient Elis, in the western part 
of the Morea. Their celebration commenced B. C. 776, from which 
time, the Olympiads, or periods of four years each, were reckoned. 
The games consisted in races, on horseback and on foot, in leaping, 
throwing the quoit, wrestling, and boxing ; and musical, poetical, 
and literary, contests concluded the whole. The honor of a victory 
at these games was very great. 

Opuntian Locrians, see Locrians. 

Oracle, an answer given, by persons pretending to divine inspiration. 
The place where these responses were given was also called the ora- 
cle. There were several in ancient Greece. They were consulted 
on all public exigencies, and a reverential regard was paid to the 
answers obtained. 

Orange, Prince of. William the First, Prince of Orange, the foundet 
of Dutch freedom, was born in 1533, and died, by the hand of an 
assassin, in 1584. He was the leader of the provinces of the Neth- 
erlands, in their long and bloody war against the crown of Spain, 
some scenes of which are described in this Volume. (See pages 
287, &c.) He was a man of acute and penetrating understanding, 
but of a most impenetrable reserve. He was calm and firm in the 
midst of dangers. He holds a high place in history, as one who 
was ever more anxious for the welfare of his people than for his 
own exaltation. 

Orb with the cross. A globe, surmounted with a cross, was a badge of 
empire, and an image of victory, under the Roman emperors, before 
the establishment of Christianity ; and has continued, in various 
kingdoms and empires, since then, to be one of the badges of royal- 
ty, carried in state on public occasions. 

Orcades, or Orkney Isles, a group of small islands on the northern 
coast of Scotland. 

Oriental, belonging to the East, that is, particularly, to Asia. The 
Oriental or Asiatic style, both of speaking and writing, is remarka- 
ble for its use of figurative expressions. 

Orvieto, a city in Italy, about fifty miles north-northwest of Rome. 

Ostend, a seaport of the Netherlands. Its situation is described in 
page 297. 



368 GLOSSARY. 

OtrantOy a fortified city near the southeastern extremity of Italy. 

Ottoman f Turkish. The Turks derive the name of Ottomans, or Os 
manli, (the latter being the correct national appellation,) fromOsman, 
or Othman, who became Sultan in the year 1300. 

Padua, a very ancient city in the north of Italy, about twenty-two 
miles west of Venice. 

PalcBologus, the family name of the last Roman emperors. See Con- 
stantinople. 

Palatinate, a country in Germany, formerly governed by an elector 
palatine. The word palatine is derived from the Latin palatium, 
(a palace,) and means one holding an employment in the king's pal- 
ace, and hence, one invested with royal privileges. 

Palestine, or the Hohj Land, unquestionably the most memorable and 
interesting country on the face of the whole earth ; the land most 
sacred to our recollection, as men and as Christians ; at once the 
most favored and the most guilty. country under heaven ; which was, 
between two and three thousand years, the only portion of the 
world where the worship of the true God was maintained ; the scene 
of nearly all the important events recorded in the Bible ; where the 
Lord of glory lived, and taught, and suffered ; to which the banished 
Jew looks, as to his long-lost home ; and the devout Christian, for 
the completion of prophecies yet to be accomplished ; — this most 
interesting country is a small canton in the southwest part of Syria, 
bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. It is also called the Land 
of Judea, Israel, Canaan, &c. Jerusalem is its capital, — a city 
which was founded about the year B. C. 2023, and which, having 
survived the revolutions of more than four thousand years, is still 
an important city, in our own day. 

Pall Mall, the name of a street in London. 

Palos, a small town in Spain, where Columbus fitted out his ships, 
and whence he sailed for the discovery of the New World, in 1492. 

Pampeluna, a. city of Spain, seventy-eight miles northwest of Zarago- 
za, with a population of about fourteen thousand. It is strongly 
fortified. 

Panel, (of a wall,) the space between two projections. 

Parapet, an elevation of earth, designed to cover the soldiers from the 
enemy's cannon or small shot. 

Party wall, a wall that separates one house from the next. 

Passau, a city of Bavaria, on the Danube, formerly capital of a princi- 
pality of the same name. 

Patriarch, the title given, as early as the fifth century, to the Bishops 
of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. 
The Patriarch of Rome took the title of Pope ; the other Bishops 
retained that of Patriarchs. The title is also given, in the Roman 
Catholic Church, to certain archbishops. 

Patrician, one of the nobility, or higher order, of the Roman people ; 
the lower order being called Plebeians, (which see.) 

Pausanias, a Spartan general, the nephew of Leonidas. He was vic- 
torious at the battle of Platsese, but his arrogance and impetuosity 
alienated the minds of the allies of Sparta. He subsequently entered 
info traitorous negotiations with the Persian King, and offered to 



GLOSSARY. 369 

betray Greece to him, on condition of receiving the daughter of the 
Monarch for his wife. His intrigues were discovered, and he was 
condemned to death by his countrymen. Having taken refuge in a 
temple of Minerva, and as the sanctity of the place screened him 
from being taken, the sacred building was blocked up with heaps of 
stones, and he was starved to death. He died about B. C. 471. 

Pavia, a city of Austrian Italy, formerly capital of a duchy of the 
same name. Its population is about twenty-five thousand. It is 
remarkable for an ancient and well-endowed university. 

Peloponnesus, (now Morea, which sec,) the southern peninsula of 
Greece. It received its name (UtP.onov viioog, Pelopou nesos, the 
island of Pelops,) from Pelops, an ancient monarch of the country, 
of the fabulous age. Hence it is called, (page 32,) " Pelops' sea- 
girt region." 

Pelops, see preceding article. 

Penelope^s web. Penelope was a celebrated princess of Greece, wife 
of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, and mother of Telemachus. Her hus- 
band being absent ten years, at the siege of Troy, and not returning 
for many years after, it was supposed he was dead, upon which 
many princes became desirous of marrying her. She told them she 
could give neither of them an answer, till she had completed a piece 
of tapestry upon which she was employed. The work was done in 
a dilatory manner, and what she did in the day, she undid at night, 
so that the web was never finished. This artifice of Penelope has 
given rise to the proverb of Penelope's web, applied to labors which 
can never be ended. 

Pericles, one of the most celebrated statesmen of ancient Greece, 
whose age (sometimes called the Periclean age) was the moct 
flourishing period of Grecian arts and sciences. He was a man 
of vast sagacity and penetration, of commanding eloquence, and 
great military genius. He adorned the city of Athens with many 
magnificent public buildings and useful works. His great ambition, 
during the long time for which he wielded almost supreme authori- 
ty, was, to place Athens at the head of the Grecian states, both 
politically and intellectually. He died about B. C. 429, after a 
lingering sickness ; and on his deathbed considered that it was his 
greatest glory "that he had never caused an Athenian to put on 
mourning." 

Petard, a metallic engine, shaped like a high-crowned hat, and loaded 
with powder. It is used to break down gates, walls, and barriers, 
against which it is hung and exploded. 

Phcedon, a disciple of Socrates ; whose name Plato gave to the dia 
logue in which he relates the last conversation of Socrates with his 
scholars. 

Phidias, a celebrated Athenian sculptor, who flourished about B. C. 
444. He superintended the magnificent works with which Pericles 
adorned the city of Athens, and wrought many of them himself. 

Philelphus, (Francis,) a celebrated philologist and voluminous writer, 
who was born in Italy, in 1398, and died in 1481. He went in his 
youth to Constantinople, to study Greek. There, his talents re- 
commended him to John PaljEologus, who received him into his ser- 



370 GLOSSARY. 

vice, and gave him his daughter Theodora in marriage. He return- 
ed to Italy in 1427, where he remained for the rest of his life, en- 
gaged in literary pursuits. 

Phlius, (now Staphlica,) a town in the northeastern part of Pelopon- 
nesus. 

Phocean, belonging to Phocis, a country of ancient Greece, border- 
ing, on the south, on the Gulf of Corinth. 

Phranza, (George,) one of the Byzantine historians, (see Chalcocon- 
dyles,) who wrote a chronicle of Byzantine history from 1401 to 
1477. (See page 134.) 

Piquet, a small company of soldiers. 

PlatatB, a town of Bceotia, (a region in the easterly part of ancient 
Greece,) where an important victory was gained by the allied Greeks, 
under Pausanias and Aristides, over the army of Mardonius, a gen 
eral of the Persian King Xerxes, B. C. 479. 

Plateau, a platform ; an elevated space of level ground. 

Plato, see page 28. 

Plebeian, belonging to the plebeians, or the lower order of the Roman 
people, the higher order, or nobility, being called patricians. The 
plebeian tribunes, or tribunes of the commons, were magistrates at 
Rome, chosen from among the plebeians, and whose office it was to 
secure the rights of the common people. They were possessed of 
considerable and important powers. 

Pleminius, (Q-uintus,) an officer under Scipio Africanus, who, being 
left by the latter in charge of the city of Locri, (B. C 205,) occa- 
sioned great disturbances there by his cruelty and avarice. Charges 
were in consequence made against Scipio at Rome, for neglect of 
duty in leaving his province. Pleminius was brought to Rome, and 
died in prison. 

Poggio JBracciolini, an early promoter of literature in Italy, and 
author of a history of Florence. He was born in 1380, and died in 
1459. 

Polymnia, or Polyhymnia, the name of one of the Muses, who were 
deities of the ancient mythology, nine in number, presiding over va- 
rious branches of science and art. The different books of the history 
of Herodotus are each called by the name of one of the Muses. 

Ponte Molle, (anciently Pons Milvius, the Milvian bridge,) a bridge 
over the Tiber, at Rome. 

Pontiff, a high priest. The Roman Pontiff, or Pope, (see Patriarch,) 
is the head of the Roman Catholic Church, and styles himself the 
vicar (deputy, delegate) of Christ upon earth. 

Porsena, a King of Etruria, who made war upon the Romans, because 
they refused to restore Tarquin (see Briitus) to his throne. His 
whole army was opposed at the head of a bridge, by Horatius Co- 
des, a Roman, while his companions were cutting down the bridge, 
and destroying the communication with the other shore. When the 
bridge was destroyed. Codes leaped into the Tiber, and swam to the 
opposite side. 

Portcullis, an assemblage of several large pieces of wood, joined 
across one another like a harrow, and each pointed with iron at the 
bottom. They were formerly hung over the gateways of fortified 



GLOSSARY. 371 

places, ready to let down in cases of surprise, when the gates could 
not be shut. 

Porte. The Turkish, or Ottoman, Court is called the Porte, the Otto 
man Porte, or the Sublime Porte. The term is derived from a 
beautiful gate (porte) of the palace of the Sultan Osman, orOthman. 
(See Ottoman.) 

Prcetor, the title of a Roman magistrate, on whom devolved the ad- 
ministration of justice, and who was next in rank to the consul. 
There was at first only one, but the number was afterwards in 
creased, till, in Julius Caesar's time, there were ten. The city 
prcetor tried all causes between citizens ; another preetor, those be- 
tween citizens and foreigners ; the remainder administered justice 
in the provinces. The city preetor took also the place of the con- 
suls, in their absence. 

Prague, the capital city of Bohemia, the most northerly of the states 
of the Austrian empire. It is a very ancient town, has a population 
of about eighty thousand, and is remarkable for its university. 

Prior. Grand Prior was the title of certain of the highest officers 
of the Order of the Knights of St. John of Malta. Each language 
had its grand prior. See page 160. 

Propontis, (now Sea of Marmora,) a small inland sea, lying between 
the Black Sea and the Archipelago. 

Protestants. All who reject human authority, in matters of religion, 
may now be included under this term, which takes its origin from a 
protest made in 1539, by some members of the German empire, fa- 
vorers of the Reformation, against a resolve of the diet held at Spire, 
a city of Bavaria, in 1529. This resolve was designed to check the 
progress of the Reformation, by interdicting all innovations in the 
Roman Church, and all preaching of a kind hostile to the corruptions 
of the Church. 

Provence, one of the old provinces of France, lying in the southeast- 
ern part of the country, on the Mediterranean. 

Prytaneium, the building in Athens, where the prytanes (those sena- 
tors who presided in turn) held their meetings, and lived at the 
public expense during the thirty-five or thirty-six days of their pres- 
idency. The liberty of eating in the Prytaneium was one of the 
highest marks of honor, and was conferred only on those who had 
done important service to the state. 

Pyl<B, a Greek word, signifying gates, and often applied to narrow 
straits or passes between mountains, like that at Thermopylae. 

Pylcea, a name by which the council of the Amphictyons was called, 
because it met near Thermopylae. The name was sometimes ap- 
plied to the place of its meetings. 

PylagorcB, deputies to the Amphictyonic council. 

Quarrel^ a squareheaded arrow, from the Italian, quadrello, (a square 
arrow,) which is derived from quadra, (a square,) and that from 
quattro, (four.) 

Questor, a Roman magistrate, who managed the public treasury. 
There were two of these officers in the city, and several others in 
the different provinces. 

Quiritest a name given to the Roman citizens, as is supposed, from 



I 



372 GLOSSARY. 

Iheir admitting into union with them the Sabine inhabitants of Cures, 
who were called Quirites. 

Ravelin, a work raised before the curtain, and on the counterscarp, 
of a fortified place. It consists of two faces, (or sides,) which 
form a salient (or projecting) angle. (See Bastion, and Counter- 
scarp.) 

Rector, the title given to the head of some universities. The office 
of Rector is sometimes equivalent to that of President, and some- 
times superior to it. 

Recusants, (Latin, recusans, refusing,) those Roman Catholics, in the 
reign of Elizabeth, in England, who refused to conform to tlse re 
ligious establishment instituted by that Queen. 

The Reformation, that event in the history of the Christian Church, 
when Protestants separated from the Church of Rome. 

Relics, the remains, or supposed remains, of holy persons, saints, and 
martyrs, or some object belonging to them, or connected with them. 
Such relics have always been held in great veneration by Roman 
Catholics ; a superstitious regard has been paid to them, and they 
have been supposed to possess the power of working miracles. 

Religious Orders, associations of persons, bound to lead strict and de- 
votional lives, and to live separate from the world. The males of 
such associations, are called monks, and the females, nuns ; and 
the vows of temperance, continence, poverty, &c., which they take, 
and are obliged perpetually to observe, are called monastic vows. 

Rhodian, an inhabitant of Rhodes, for a notice of which, see page 
160. 

Romania, a name applied, by the Turks, to the greater part of Tur- 
key in Europe, and by European writers to that part of it lying south 
of the Balkan mountains. 

Rome, which has been called ' the Eternal City,' ' the mistress of the 
world,' and ' the mother of nations,' is a city of Italy, situated on 
both sides of the River Tiber, near the Mediterranean. For up- 
wards of two thousand years have the principal occurrences in his- 
tory been connected with her religious or political policy, her arts 
and arms. The Pope resides here ; but the city now presents but 
the shadow of her former greatness. As the residence of the popes» 
and the capital city and central point of the Roman Catholic Church, 
it has been called the ' sacred city.' 

Rostrum, (properly rostra,) an elevated platform, in the forum at 
Rome, whence the orators used to harangue the people ; so called, 
because it was adorned with the rostra (beaks) of the ships, taken 
by the Romans in a war with the people of Antium. Ships of war 
had their prows armed with a sharp beak, covered with brass, the 
object of which was, to disable the ships of the enemy by running 
into them. 

Rotenburg, or Rottenburg, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of 
Lucerne. 

Rotterdam, a seaport of the Netherlands, on the River Meuse. It has 
an excellent harbor, and contains about sixty-five thousand inhabi- 
tants. 

Riiss, or Reuss, a river of Switzerland, which passes through Lake 



GLOSSARY. 373 

Uri, or Lucerne, or the Lake of the Four Cantons, and falls into the 
Aar. 

Rutlin, or Rutli, a solitary spot on the Lake of Lucerne, (part of the 
Lake of the Four Cantons,) in Switzerland. 

St. Angela, Castle of, a strong fortress in Rome, built by the Empe- 
ror Adrian, about A. D. 130, for his Mausoleum, and rendered by 
him the most superb monument ever raised in Rome. About the 
year 593, Pope Gregory the Great named it the Castle of St. An- 
gelo, from a story that an angel was seen on the top of it, sheathing 
a sword, during the time of a plague. It communicates, by a cov- 
ered gallery, with the Vatican, the palace of the Pope. 

St. Basil, a bishop of Coesarea, in Cappadocia, born A. D. 326, and 
died January 1, 379. 

St. Jacobi, (or St. James,) day of, the day on which the apostle St. 
James is commemorated, — July 25. 

St. Pantaleon, (or Pantalsemon,) suffered martyrdom, at Nicomedia, 
A. D. 305. A church was erected in commemoration of him, in the 
seventh century, in Constantinople, and others in other places. 

St. Romanus. There were several celebrated individuals of this 
name, one of whom lived about A. D. 258 ; another died February 
28, 460 ; and another was made Archbishop of Rouen, in France, 
A. D. 622, and died October 23, 639. 

St. Sophia, Church of, a magnificent cathedral, erected at Constanti- 
nople, by Justin and Justinian, Emperors of the East. When the 
city was captured by the Turks, they perverted the church into a 
mosque, which is still considered the first in the Mohammedan do- 
minions. 

Salamis, (now Colouri,) an island on the eastern coast of Greece, 
separated by a narrow channel from Attica. It is celebrated for a 
naval victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians, B. C.480. 

Salient angle, a projecting angle. 

Saltpetre, (nitrate of potash,) nitre, one of the ingredients in gunpow- 
der, the other two being sulphur and charcoal. 

Sappers and Miners, see Countermine. 

Saracens, (Orientals, or people of the East,) the name adopted by 
the Arabs, after their settlement in Europe, as the term Arabs, 
(people of the West,) which denoted their geographical position 
in Asia, was improper in Europe. 

Sardinia, a large island in the Mediterranean Sea, west of Italy. It 
is separated from Corsica, on the north, by the straits of Bonifacio. 

Sarnen, a town of Switzerland, in the district of Unterwalden. 

Sarzana, a town and fortress in Italy, forty -five miles east-southeast 
of Genoa. 

Satrapy, the name of a class of provinces, under the Persian empire, 
'.*nich were under governors called satraps. 

t:caling ladders, ladders eniployed for scaling, or mounting, walls, 
in an attack on a fortified place. 

Schaffhausen, a town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Schaff- 
hausen, on the Rhine, celebrated for its vicinity to the largest wa- 
terfalls in Europe, called the Falls of Schaffhausen, 

Schleiermacher, (Frederick,) a celebrated German theologian, who 
32 G. E. 



374 GLOSSARY. 

was born in 1768, and died in 1834. His translation of Plato ap- 
peared during the later years of his life, and is a work of great value. 
He was remarkable, as one of the deepest thinkers of his day, and 
as a man of great energy of character and simplicity of manners, as 
well as of the most extensive acquirements. 

Schwytz, one of the central cantons of Switzerland. 

Scipio, the name of a celebrated family in ancient Rome. Puhlius 
Cornelius Scipio, surnamed Africanus, from his having disting- 
uished himself by his conquests in Africa, took an active part, from 
his youth, in the wars between the Romans and Carthaginians, and 
obtained signal victories over the latter, in Spain and Africa, van- 
quishing the formidable Carthaginian general, Hannibal, himself. 
His brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, surnamed Asiaiicus, from 
having distinguished himself in Asia, accompanied him in his expe- 
ditions in Spain and Africa, and afterwards carried on a successful 
war against Antiochus, King of Syria. For an account of the later 
events in the lives of these generals, see pages 60-73. 

Scupper holes, or scuppers, small holes on the side of the deck of a 
ship, through which water is carried off into the sea. 

Selymbria, a town of ancient Thrace, on the Propontis, or Sea of 
Marmora. 

Semiramis, a Queen of Assyria, (an ancient kingdom of Asia,) whose 
whole history is involved in fable and obscurity, so that the period 
of her reign cannot be given with certainty. She is supposed to 
have lived about two thousand years before Christ. 

Sempach, a town of Switzerland, on a lake of the same name, in the 
canton of Lucerne. 

Seraglio, (Persian, a large hall or house,) particularly applied to the 
palace of the Turkish Sultan in Constantinople, the walls of which 
embrace a circuit of about nine miles, including several mosques, 
spacious gardens, and buildings capable of accommodating twenty 
thousand men, though not more than half that number are usually 
located there. 

Servia, one of the northern provinces of European Turkey, bordering 
northerly on the River Danube. 

Serving brothers, or servitors, members of the order of Hospitallers, 
(see page 160,) whose duty it was to take care of the sick, and ac- 
company pilgrims. 

Sesterce, (plural, sesterces,) a Roman coin, worth about two and a 
half cents. 

The Seven Towers, a fortress on the southwest side of the city of 
Constantinople. 

Severn, a river of England, flowing into the Bristol Channel between 
England and Wales. 

Sheds, (in fortification,) slight temporary structures for defence. 

Shoulderwork, a breastwork, a defence, of earth or other material, 
raised to the height of the breast or shoulder. 

Simonides, a lyric poet of ancient Greece, who flourished about five 
hundred years before Christ. 

Sobiesky, (John,) King of Poland, and one of the greatest warriors of 
his age, was born A. D. 1629, and died in 1696. When the Turk« 



GLOSSARY. 375 

laid siege to Vienna, in 1683, he hastened thither, with a Polish ar- 
my, and rescued the imperial city, the inhabitants of which gratefully 
regarded him as their deliverer. He was equally remarkable for 
the gentleness of his temper, and for his courage. 

Socrates, see page 28. 

Soliman II., (the Magnificent,) became Sultan of the Turkish empire 
A. D. 1520. He possessed great abilities, displayed alike in peace 
and in war, and extended the limits of the Turkish dominion. He 
had great powers of command, was ambitious, active, and enter- 
prising, and is regarded as the greatest of the Ottoman emperors. 
He died in 1566. His siege of Rhodes, in 1522, is described in 
this Volume. 

Sophists, the name of a peculiar class of teachers of eloquence, phi- 
losophy, and politics, which flourished in Greece in the fifth century 
before Christ. The name properly signifies wise men, (from the 
Greek aoifhg, sophos, wise,) and was assumed from motives of 
learned pride. But as the later sophists perverted the science which 
they taught, (see page 28,) the title was applied to men who seek 
to confound the understanding by false reasonings. 

Sophocles, an illustrious Greek poet, born B. C. 495. He died at a 
very advanced age. His tragedies are written in a dignified and 
elevated style, with great elegance of versification and purity of 
language. 

Spalatin, a friend of Luther, and the secretary of the Elector Frederick 
of Saxony. 

Spartans, see Laced<emonians. 

Spinola, (Ambrose, Marquis of,) one of the greatest generals of his 
age, who was born at Genoa, in 1569, and died in 1630. He joined 
the Spanish forces in the Netherlands, distinguished himself at the 
siege of Ostend, (see pages 301, &c.,) and was afterwards ap- 
pointed general-in-chief of all the Spanish troops in that country. 

Stanhope, (James, Earl of,) was born in 1673, and died in 1721. 
After distinguishing himself in military affairs, he became a minister 
of state, on the accession of George the First to the throne of Eng- 
land, A. D. 1714. 

Strada coperta, (Italian,) a covered way. See Counterscarp. 

Styria, a province of the Austrian empire, on the west of Hungary. 

Sultan, an Arabic word, signifying mighty, the title of the Turkish 
emperors. 

Sursee, a town of the canton of Lucerne, in Switzerland, on the Lake 
of Sempach. 

Susa, a celebrated city in Asia, the capital of the ancient Persian em- 
pire, situated about one hundred and fifty miles north of the head 
of tha Gulf of Persia. 

Sylvius J^neas, of the Italian family of Piccolomini, became Pope in 
1458, under the title of Pius II. He was a learned man, and au- 
thor of some historical works. 

Syphax, a king of the Masaesylians, (an African tribe, living near the 
Mediterranean,) who forsook the alliance of the Romans, to unite 
himself with the Carthaginians, but was defeated and made prisoner 
by Scipio. He died B. C. 201 



37b GLOSSARY. 

Syracuse^ in the southeast part of Sicily, anciently the chief city of 
the island, when it contained three hundred thousand inhabitants. 
At present, it numbers about fifteen thousand. 

Talisman^ (Arabic, figure,) any figure or object, natural or artificial, 
prepared with certain magical ceremonies, and supposed to be of 
sovereign power in averting danger or calamity. 

Taurus, a celebrated chain of mountains, in the eastern part of Asiatic 
Turkey. 

Taylor, (Thomas,) the translator of Plato, was born in London, 
A. D. 1758. Making himself a scholar, in spite of every obstacle, 
struggling with poverty, ill treatment, and ill health, with great per- 
severance and little patronage, he devoted himself to letters, and 
made translations of several of the Greek philosophers. 

Tegeatce, inhabitants of Tegea, (now Moklia,) a town of Arcadia, in 
the Peloponnesus, Greece. 

Templars, a celebrated order of knights, established A. D. 1119, for 
the protection of the pilgrims on the roads in Palestine, and after- 
wards devoted to the defence of the Holy Sepulchre (see Jerusa- 
levi) against the Saracens. The order became very powerful and 
wealthy, but drew upon itself suspicion and odium, and was abol- 
ished early in the fourteenth century, with many circumstances of 
aggravated oppression and cruelty towards its members. 

Tergowe, another name for Gouda, which see. 

Teutonic, Germanic, belonging to Germany. 

Thebans, inhabitants of Thebes, a celebrated city of ancient Greece, 
the capital of Bceotia, a region northwest of Attica. 

Thermopylce, a narrow pass, leading from Thessaly into Locris and 
Phocis, between a large ridge of mountains on the west, and the 
sea ; so called from thtrma, warm springs, and pylce, {which see,) 
because there were warm springs near it. It was five or six, miles 
long, but only one hundred or one hundred and twenty feet wide, 
and in some places only twenty-five feet. The great event which 
has made the name of Thermopylae immortal, is described in the first 
extract in this Volume. 

Theseus, a celebrated hero of the fabulous ages, and King of Athens. 
The Athenians, having been defeated in a war with Minos, King of 
Crete, were obliged to send him a yearly tribute of seven boys, and 
as many girls, as the price of peace. These youths and maidens, 
according to the fable, were to be devoured by a monster, called the 
Minotaur, half man and half bull. Theseus went to Crete as one 
of the seven, destroyed the monster, and delivered his country from 
the tribute. Theseus lived about B. C. 1200 or 1300. 

T%espians, inhabitants of Thespia, a town of ancient Greece, inBoeotia. 

Thessaly, the northern part of ancient Greece, now forming the south- 
eastern part of European Turkey. 

Thucydides, the greatest of the Greek historians, born at Athens, B. C. 
470. His history of the war between the Athenians and Peloponne- 
sians was written in banishment. He is the earliest historian who 
wrote in a truly philosophical spirit, searching out the causes of 
events, and the springs of actions, and raised history to its true dig- 
nity. He lived to the age of seventy or eighty years. 



GLOSSARY. 377 

Tiara, originally, a cap or high turban, worn by the Persian kings. 
The Pope's tiara is a high cap, surrounded by three crowns, rising 
one above another. 

Tiber ^ a river of Italy, about one hundred and sixty miles in length, 
flowing into the Mediterranean. It is celebrated as the river on 
which stood the queen of cities, " eternal" Rome, but is a small 
and turbid stream. 

Tomb of Christ, see Jerusalem. 

Totila, a King of the Goths in Italy, from 541 to his death in 552. 
He twice took the city of Rome ; and, after the second time, re- 
paired some of the walls and edifices which he had destroyed at first. 
His valor is said, by the historians of the time, to have been tem- 
pered by humanity and justice. 

Trachinia, a small country in the northeastern part of Greece, on the 
Maliac Gulf, or Gulf of Zeiton. 

Traverse, a work of fortification thrown up across a plain or street 

Treves, a city of Prussia, on the Moselle, near France. 

Tribunes, see Plebeian. 

Tribunitian, of, or belonging to, the tribunes. 

Tudela, a town of Spain, on the Ebro. At this place, a battle was 
fought, in November, 1808, between the Spaniards under Castanos, 
a distinguished general, and the French ; the latter being victorious. 

Tunny, a large fish, abundant in the Mediterranean, and forming an 
extensive branch of commerce there. 

Turcomans, a wandering race, whose tribes fill many of the districts 
of western Asia. They are Mohammedans. 

Tuscans, see Etruria. 

Tyrol, a province of the Austrian empire, lying south of Bavaria 
and east of Switzerland. It is the most mountainous country in 
Europe. 

United Provinces, the name given to the seven States of Holland, or 
the Netherlands, which threw off the yoke of Spain, and became 
independent. 

Unterwalden, a canton of Switzerland. 

Uri, a canton of Switzerland. 

Valerius Antias, see Aniias. 

Valet de chambre, (French, a servant of the chamber,) a body ser- 
vant ; an immediate personal attendant. 

Vandals, a tribe from the north of Germany, who made war upon the 
Romans, from the third to the sixth century. Italy was ravaged by 
them in the fifth century ; Rome was plundered, and works of art 
despoiled with the most savage fury. 

Vatican, a sumptuous palace in Rome, built by several successive 
popes, before 1600. It contains noble collections of works of art, 
and a large and valuable library. It is the residence of the Pope, 
in Winter a,nd Spring ; and the word Vatican is therefore sometimes 
used to signify the papal government. 

Veii, see Camillus. 

Venice, a city of Austrian Italy, at the northern extremity of the 
Adriatic sea. It is built upon a collection of small islands, seventy- 
two in number, and intersected with numerous canals, which supply 
32* 



378 GLOSSARY. 

entirely all the purposes of streets ; boats (called gondolas) being 
used in place of carriages or wagons. 

Vicar of Christ, see Pope. 

Vienna, the capital city of Austria, containing about three hundred 
thousand inhabitants. 

The Virgin, the title particularly applied to the Virgin Mary, the 
mother of Jesus Christ. 

Vizier i a title of honor with the Turks, belonging to all the highest 
pachas, (see Bashaw.) The six members of the council of state 
are also called viziers. The grand vizier is the prime minister and 
representative of the Sultan, and rules with absolute power in his 
name. 

Vogt, see Bailiff. 

Walachia, a province tributary to Turkey, lying on the north bank 
of the Danube. 

l^alloons, the inhabitants of the district situated between the rivers 
Scheldt and Lys, included partly in Belgium and partly in France. 
The Walloons formerly furnished some of the most effective of the 
Spanish troops. 

Wiclif, or Wicldif, (John,) was born in Yorkshire, England, about 
the year 1324. Being a bold thinker in religious matters, he took 
a prominent stand against the encroachments and corruptions of 
the Pope and Roman Catholic clergy, and endeavored to restore 
the apostolical simplicity and purity of the primitive Christian 
Church. He was a man of great learning, and an ardent Reform- 
er. He disavowed the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, and con- 
sidered the confession of sins to a priest, when sincerely repented 
of, as useless. Among his other numerous writings, he finished a 
translation of the Sacred Scriptures. He died of a paralytic attack, 
in 1384. 

Wolsey, (Thomas,) Cardinal, an eminent minister of state under 
Henry the Eighth of England, was born in 1471. He was a favor- 
ite with that Monarch, and dignities and offices were profusely 
heaped upon him. His natural pride and ostentation caused him to 
display great state and magnificence, though he also manifested 
great munificence for the advancement of learning. He fell, how- 
ever, under the displeasure of his master, was deposed from his 
dignities, and died at the age of sixty years. 

Worms, an ancient city of Germany, near the Rhine, containing about 
six thousand inhabitants. It derives an historic interest from having 
been frequently the seat of the diet of the empire ; and the town- 
house is still to be seen, in which Luther appeared in 1521, as men- 
tioned in this Volume. 

Xenophon^ a celebrated historian and general of Athens, who flour- 
ished about the year B. C. 400. He was a pupil of Socrates, and 
we are indebted to him for much light upon the philosophy of his 
master. 

Xerxes, King of Persia, famous for his unsuccessful attempt to con- 
quer Greece, (see pages 9, &c.) He began to reign B. C. 485, 
and was assassinated in the twenty-first year of his reign. 

Yare, ready, eager, brisk. 



GLOSSARY. 379 

Yoke, (in ancient military affairs,) a frame formed of two upright 
spears and one placed across, under which vanquished enemies were 
made to pass, without arms, and also without their upper garments, 
as a token of submission. 

Zug, a mountainous canton of Switzerland, with a capital town of the 
same name. 

Zurich, a city in the north part of Switzerland, capital of a canton of 
the same name, and situated at the northern extremity of the beau- 
tiful Lake of Zurich. It is remarkable for the magnificent mountain 
scenery of the interior and southern districts. 



INDEX 



A. 

Aarau, Avoyer of, killed, 96. 

Aarberg, Peter of, 94. 

Aarburg, Ulrich of, 93. 

Aargau, 89. Avoyers of, 94. 
Lords of, buried, 97. 

Abou Ayub, 139. 

Abrocomes, son of Darius, killed 
at Thermopylae, 21. 

Acarnania, 20. 

Acca, see Laurentia. 

Achaemenes, on movements against 
Sparta, 25. 

Achaia, Xerxes' march through, 1 1. 

Acheloum, surrender of, 113. 

Achmet Basha, 188. Attacks by, 
189,197,198. Unsuccessful, 198. 
Takes command of the Turks, 
206. Attempts the bastion of 
Spain, 206. Begins his batter- 
ies again, 213. Ruins the bas- 
tion of Italy, 215. Tears an 
old treaty to pieces, 227. Trea- 

. ty signed by, in the Sultan's 
name, 228. Interview between 
the Grand-master and, 228. 

Achsen, 85. 

Actium, Cleopatra's fleet at, 320, 
note. 

Aculeo, Caius Furius, 67. 

Adam, Philip de Villiers de I'lsle, 
Grand-master of the Knights of 
Rhodes, 164. Preparations of, 
for the siege of Rhodes, 164, 
171, 183. Measure by, for 
subsisting the people, 164-166. 
Honors Martinengo, 169. Pro- 
voked with the Italian Knights, 
170 ; his reception of them, 171. 
Applies for succors, 171, 215. 
Reviews troops, 172. Personal 



activity and supervision of, 173. 
Palace of, 173. Distribution of 
troops by, 175. Assigns to 
Knights their employments, 175. 
Defends St. Marie de la Vic- 
toire, 175, 181. Mission by, to 
Lycia, 177. Orders fasting and 
prayer, before the siege, 179. 
Piety of, 179. Reception of the 
governor of Rhodes by, 180. 
Discontinues sallies, 187. Re- 
enforces St. Nicholas, 190. Pro- 
vides for powder, 192. Bravery 
of, at the bastion of England, 
195, 201 ; of Italy, 196. Pre- 
pares against a general assault, 
200. Encouragements given by, 
200. Bravery of, for the post 
of Spain, 203, 207, 208, 217, 
225, 226. Fills the post of 
Martinengo, 207, 208. Influ- 
ence of his example, 208. Not 
succored, 214. Measures taken 
by, 214. Demolishes churches, 
215. Refuses to negotiate, 219, 
222. Difficulty of, with Greeks, 
220, 221. Advice to, by a 
council, 221. Consents to ne- 
gotiate 223. Old treaty sent 
by, to Soliman, 226. Interview 
between Achmet and, 228. Re- 
ception of, by Soliman, 229. 
Reply by, to offers, 229. Visit-^ 
ed by Soliman, 230. Tries to 
save Prince Amurath, 232. 
Takes leave of the Sultan, 232. 
See Achmet, Knights, Rhodes, 
Soliman II., a7id Turks. 

Adolphus of Nassau, 74. 

Adrian, Emperor, mausoleum of, 
243, note. 



382 



INDEX. 



Adrian, VI., Pope, does not suc- 
cor Rhodes, 213, 214. Sends 
troops to Milan and Lombardy, 
214. Agreement of Charles V. 
and, 234. 

Adrian, a magistrate in Leyden, 
296. 

Adrianople, visited by Phranza, 
134. Mohammed II. returns to, 
138. Decline of, 138. 

^gean Sea, 72. 

^gina, 13. 

Emilia, wife of Scipio, on the 
marriage of her daughter to 
Gracchus, 70. 

iEschylus, at the battle of Mara- 
thon, 10. 

yEsculapius, 39. 

Africa, conquered by Scipio, 64. 

Africanus, see Scipio. 

Aga of the Janizaries, 188, 203. 
Maintains his ground, 204. 
Takes possession of Rhodes, 
227, 228. 

Agesilaus, 13. 

Agis, 13. 

Agnes, Queen, 97. 

Agricultural priesthood, 40. 

Aiala, Lopez d', 177. 

Albert, Jfing of Germany, son of 
Rudolphof Hapsburg, 74. De- 
sires a new dukedom in Helve- 
tia, 74. Adolphus of Nassau 
defeated by, 74. Proposition 
by, to Uri, Schwytz, and Un- 
terwalden, 74 ; appoints Austri- 
an officers over them, 74 ; im- 
perial bailiffs, 75. His treatment 
of messengers, 75. Sends two 
bailiffs to Swiss districts, 76. 
Complaints to, against bailiffs, 
76. In Lower Austria, at the 
death of Gessler, 86. 

Albert of Hohenrechberg, 95. 

Albert of Mullinen, Knight, 94. 

Albert VI., see Archduke. 

Alcamenes, 13. 

Alexander VI., Pope, treatment 
of Zizim by, 232, note. 

Algiria, attack on French in, 327, 
note. 



Alpenus, the town, 18. 
Alpheus, distinguished at Ther 

mopylae, 22. 
Alpnach, 88. 

Altdorff', castle built near, 79. 
Altenstein, Hund, lord of, 156. 
Amalfi, merchants of, establish a 
hospital for pilgrims, 159. 

Amaral, Andrew d', Chancellor, 
hates Adam, 164. Commis- 
sioner at Rhodes, 165. Per- 
fidious advice of, 165. With 
a corps de reserve, 176, False 
report by, respecting powder, 
191. Account of the treason 
of, at Rhodes, 209. Seized, 
210. Persuaded the Sultan to 
invade Rhodes, 211. Fate of, 
212. Fontanus on, 212,213. 

Ambarvalia, the festival, 40, note. 

Ambustus, Quintus Fabius, 51. 

Amphictyon, shrine of, 12. 

Amphictyons, seats of the, 12. 
Council of the, set a price on 
the head of Ephialtes, 17. In 
scriptions by, on a tomb at Ther- 
mopylae, 23. 

Amurath, Prince, attempt to save, 
231. 

Anatolia, 123, 129, 133, 188. 

Anaxander, 13. 

Anaxandrides, father of Cleome- 
nes, Dorieus, and Leonidas, 13. 

Andelot, Chevalier d', repulses 
Turks under Peri, 197. 

Angioli, 264. 

Anopae, the path, near Thermopy- 
lae, Xerxes informed of, 17. 
Defended by the Phoceans, 18. 
Account of it, 18. 

Ansaldi, John, fate of, 256. 

Anthela, situation of, 12. 

Antias, Valerius, 60, 67. 

Anticyra, situation of, 11. Ephi- 
altes killed at, 17. 

Antiochus, said to pay court to 
Scipio, 61. Removed beyond 
Mount Taurus, 64. Order re- 
specting money received of, 65. 
Purpureo on the money receiv- 
ed of, 66. Convictions for bri- 



INDEX. 



383 



beiy by, 67. The war with, 
assigned to Scipio, 71. Circum 
stances in the action with, 71, 
Hannibal with, 71. Territory 
and wealth of, 72. 

\ntony of Port, 92. 

\ntwerpe, fire of, 324. 

\nytus hates and persecutes So- 
crates, 31. 

\pidanus, the river, 11. 

\pollo, Carnian festival in honor 
of, 14, note. 

\pollodorus, present at the death 
of Socrates, 38. 

Apology, of Plato, 30-32. Of 
Xenophon, 31, 32. 

Apparitor, 275. 

Apulia, Romans go to relieve, and 
are ensnared, 42. 

Arabs, attack by the, on French 
in Algiria, 327, 7iote. 

Aracela, Cardinal, treatment of, at 
Rome, 256. 

Aragon, Knights of the Language 
of, 160. 

Aragonese at Zaragoza, 328. 
Could not remove the slain, 330. 

Arcadia, soldiers from, at Ther- 
mopylaj, 12. 

Archduke, [Albert VI. of Spain,] 
at the siege of Ostend, 297. 
Raises a battery near St. Alberto, 
298. Advised to abandon the 
siege, 299. Orders by, 299. 
Retires to Ghent, 299. Visits 
Ostend, after its surrender, 306, 
307. Commends Spinola, 307. 

Archelaus, 13. 

Archipelago, isles of the, 121. 

Arcillan, Philip de, bravery and 
death of, 199. 

Aretino, Leonardo, 110. 

Argans, bailiffs of Austria, 89. 

Argau, see Aargau. 

Argillemont, killed, 195. 

Arginusee, vote as to generals in 
the battle of, 31. 

Argosies, 317. 

Aristides, at Marathon, 10. 

Aristodemus, 13. Treatment of, 
for not remaining at Thermopy- 



lee, 23. Bravery of, at Plataeae, 
23. 

Aristomachus, 13. 

Ariston, Demaratus son of, 15, 26. 

Aristophanes, Socrates ridiculed in 
The Clouds by, 30, note, 32. 

Aristotle, Plato master of, 28. 

Armada, destruction of the, 308. 
Account of the, 309, 317, 318. 
Measures to prevent its commu- 
nication with the Duke of Par- 
ma, 314. Riding in the Tagus, 
316. Passes to the Groyne, 
319. Delayed, 319. Plan for 
the, 319. Sails for England, 
319. Comes to Plymouth, 321. 
In the form of a crescent, 321. 
Action with the, 321. At Ca- 
lais, 323. Concert between thf 
Duke of Parma and the, 323. 
Visiters to the, 323. Fired , 324. 
Defeated, 325. Proceeds to the 
Orcades, 325. Number of ves- 
sels saved and lost, 325, 326. 
See Howard, Perez, and Parma. 

Army, see Roman. 

Arnold von Melchtal, see Melchtal. 

Arnold Strutthan, see Winkelried. 

Arsamis, descendants of, 21. 

Artanes, relatives of, 21. 

Arthur, Prince, Catharine widow 
of, 271, 279, 281. 

Artillery, at the siege of Constanti- 
nople, 119, 130. Reunion of 
the ancient and modern, 120. 
See Cannon. 

Arvina, Aulus Cornelius, a herald 
to the Samnites, 57. Struck by 
Postumius, 57, 58. Addressed 
by Pontius, 58. 

Asia, Scipio's commission in, 65. 

Asopus, the river, 12, 18. 

Athenades, Ephialtes killed by, 17. 

Athenians defeat Persians at Mar- 
athon, 10. 

Athens, 13. Teachings, of the So- 
phists at, 28, 31 ; of Socrates 
at, 28, 31. Character of the 
court of Heliaea at, 32. Usage 
at, delaying execution, 34. Sa- 
cred vessel despatched from* to 



384 



INDEX. 



the island of Delos» annually, 
34. 

Attenghansen, 95. 

Attica, Persians defeated at Mar- 
athon in, 10. Institution in 
commemoration of the deliver- 
ance of, 34. 

Atzelen, 76, 83. 

Aubusson, Peter d', Mohammed 
11. repulsed by, 161. Old trea- 
ty with, 226. 

Aulamo, Chevalier, action of, with 
Turkish galleys, 214. 

Austria, Swiss districts desired to 
become subjects of the House 
of, 74. High justice adminis- 
tered by officers of, among the 
Swiss, 75. Apprehensions by 
the Swiss of domination by, 75. 
Gift to the magistrates of Brem- 
garten by, 96, note. Turkish 
attempts on, 161, note. 

Austrian^, flight of the, at Sem- 
pach, 94. Horses of the, car- 
ried away, 94. See Leopold, 
and Swiss. 

Auvergne,Knightsof the Language 
of, 160. Fortifications added to 
the bastion of, at Rhodes, 172. 
Defence of the, 175, 176, 199. 
False alarm at, 192. Mines 
sprung under, 198. 

Avarice, an inventor of torture, 
255, note. 

Ayub, Abou, 139. 

Azy mites, 116, 117. 

B. 

Baden, 89. 

Bailiffs, asked for, by the Swiss, 
75. Appointed, 75. Oppres- 
sive, 75. Administer high jus- 
tice in the three districts, 75. 
Demand respecting, made of 
Albert, 75. Two, sent to the 
Swiss, 76. Oppressions by, and 
representations to Albert, 76. 
Worse cruelties by, 76-81. 

Bajazet, Sultan, 226, 231, note. 

Baker, George, extract from the 
translation of Livy by, on the 



impeachment of the Scipios, 60. 
Balestein, Leonard, Metropolitan 

of the Latins at Rhodes, 179. 
Barbaran, Jolui de, 175. Killed, 

190. 
Barbarians, foreign nations called, 

by the Greeks, 16, note. 
Barousa, decline of, 138. 
Bartholomew, sally under, 190. 
Basha, 123. See Achmet, Calil, 

Ferhat, Palgeologus, and Peri. 
Bath Place, 274, 283. 
Battles, of Thermopylae, 9. Of 

Plataese, 23, 29. Of Arginusce, 

31. At Sempach, 89. On strat- 
agem in, 91. On success in, 

97. 
Baumgarten, 76, 83. See Cunrat. 
Bavaria, see Lewis. 
Bayard, commended, 234, note. 
Bayonne, Bishop of, 278. 
Beer, sent to Luther, 151. 
Begler-bei of Anatolia, 188. 
Begler-bei of Romania, 188, 189. 
Bell, Dr., Bishop of Worcester, 

275. 
Bentivoglio, Guy, Cardinal, The 

Sieges of Leyden and Ostend by, 

287. Facts respecting, 287 

Works by, 287. 
Berenfels, three, killed, 95 
Beringer, see Landenberg. 
Berlepsch, John von, 156. 
Bern, 97. 

Bidoux, see Prejan. 
Bizon, surrender of, 113. 
Black Friars, 274. 
Boeotia, soldiers from,at Thermop 

ylsB, 12. 
Boiling oil, 197, 201. 
Boisot, Lewis, Admiral of Hoi 

land, on supplying Leyden with 

provisions, 290. Endeavors to 

succor Leyden, 292. 
Boleyn, Anne, 273. 
Bonaldi carries wine to Rhodes, 

166. 
Bonaparte, Francis, 237, note. 
Bonaparte, James, The Sack of 

Rome, in 1527, by, 233, 237. 

Facts respecting, 236. A Ro 



INDEX. 



385 



man Catholic priest, 240, 7iote. 

Bonaparte, John, 237. 

Bonaparte, Joseph, 236, note. 

Bonaparte, Lewis Mary Fortuna- 
tus, 237, note. 

Bonaparte, Louis, 236. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napo- 
leon. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon Louis, 236, 
237. 

Boniface, John, 176. 

Bonneval, Chevalier de, 176. 

Bonstetten, Hans of, 91. Troops 
from, feared, 93. 

Books, Luther's replies to charges 
respecting, 147. 

Borgia, Peter, 294, note. 

Bosio, Anthony, despatched to 
Candia for wines and reenforce- 
inents, 166. Escape of, with 
Martinengo, 168. 

Bosnia, Turks'aided from, 181. 

Bosphorus, Turkish fleet at the, 
121. Entered by the Christian 
squadron, 122. 

Bourbon, Commander of, bravery 
of, at the post of Spain, at 
Rhodes, 204. Account of the 
siege of Rhodes, by, 209 ; of 
the treason of d'Amaral, 209. 
See Charles. 

Bracci, Bernard, treatment of, 257. 

Brandenburg, see Joachim. 

Brandis, Frederic bastard of, 93. 

Bredene, fort, near Ostend, 297. 
Blocking the channel of, 298, 
299. Bucquoy commander at, 
298. Progress at, 300. 

Breisach, Burkard Gessner, of, 95. 

Bremgarten, faithfulness of, 96. 

Brilto, Chevalier de, 172. 

Brunncn, Tell to go to, 85. 

Brunswick, see Eric, arid William. 

Bucerus, 144. 

Buck, John, 165, 176. Brave 
charge by, 198. Killed, 198. 

Bucquoy, Count, diversion by, 
at Ostend, 298. To advance 
works, 299. Diligence of, 300. 

Bulls, first words of, 142, note. 

Burgonians, 302-304. 

33 



Bui'gundy, dakedom of, demand- 
ed by Charles V., 234. Re- 
signed, 235. Protestation against 
surrendering, 235. 

Burgundy, Philip of, 173. 

Burita, Countess, conduct of, at 
Zaragoza, 333. 

Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop, 276, note. 

Byzantine Caesars, 128. 

Byzantine Empire, condition of 
the, before the conquest of Con- 
stantinople by the Turks, 111. 

Byzantine libraries, fate of the, 
136. 

Byzantine treasures, 126. 



Cadiz, Drake destroys ships at, 
309. 

Ccesarea Augusta, Zaragoza, 327, 
note. 

Caesars, the Byzantine, 128. 

Calais, the Armada at, 323. 

Calatia, Samnite soldiers sent to, 
as shepherds, 42. 

Calavius, Ofilius, on the Samnite 
victory over the Romans, 50. 

Calil Bashaw, 123. 

Calvinus, Titus Veturius, consul 
of Rome, 41, 53. 

Camerino, Hieronymus de,fate of, 
255. 

Camiilus, 47. 

Cammerach, Cardinal von, silen- 
ces Huss, 102. 

Campanians, see Capuans. 

Campeggio, Cardinal, 270. Re- 
ception of, in England, 274. 
Visits the Queen, 283. Will not 
give judgement, before consult- 
ing the Pope, 285. Adjourns 
the court, 285, note, 286. 

Campen, Van, 288. On a Dutch 
medal, 310. 

Candia, archers and bowmen of, 
165. Wine and reenforcements 
from, for Rhodes, 166, 167. 
Martinengo escapes from, to 
Rhodes, 167. 

Cannon, at the siege of Constanti- 
nople, 118, 119. Discharged 
G. E. 



386 



INDEX. 



seven times in a day, 119. Oil 
to prevent the explosion of, 
119. See Artillery. 

Cantacuzene, 131. 

Canterbury, Lord Archbishop of, 
and Henry VIII., 280. 

Caparosa, 333. 

Capiculi, 113. 

Capon, Hugh, 177. 

Captives, ancient ideas as to, 135. 

Capua, attacked by Samnites, 40. 
Relieved by Romans, 40. Pity 
at, for the Roman army, 49. 
Remarks in the senate-house of, 
respecting the Roman defeat, 50. 

Capuans, proposition by, to the 
Romans, 40. 

Capuchins, convent of the, at 
Zaragoza, 336. 

Cardinals' hats, sold, 266. 

Caretto, Grand-master, 197. 

Carlisle, Bishop of, 282. 

Carlstadt, disturbances by, 157, 
note. 

Carneus, Carnian festival named 
from, 14, note. 

Carnian festival, 14. 

Carracks, 317. 

Carrieres, Francis de, 175. 

Carthage, Hannibal banished from, 
60, 66. Made tributary to Rome, 
64. 

Carthaginians, 62. Scipio's tri- 
umph over, 62, 64, 65. 

Castelane, Guyot de, 176, 

Castelnan, killed, 95. 

Castile, Knights of the Language 
of, 160. 

Castle built by orders of Gessler, 
near Altdorff, 79. Name given 
to it, 80. Destroyed, 88. 

Catharine II., Panin minister to, 
244, note. 

Catharine of Aragon, Queen of 
Henry VIII., 270. Marriage 
and parentage of, 271. Widow 
of Prince Arthur, 271. Dis- 
pensation granted for the mar- 
riage of, 271. Aunt of Charles 
v., 273. Situation of, for a 
trial, 273. Lodged at Bride- 



well, 274. Summoned to the le 
fifatine court, 274. Counsel for, 
275. Called in court, 276. 
Her appeal to the King, 276. 
Leaves the court, 278. Meas- 
ures for influencing, 282. Con- 
versation of, with the Cardinals, 
283. See Henry VIII. 

Catholics, see Protestants. 

Cato, Aulus Hostilius, charges 
against, 67. Convicted, 67. 
Condemned, 70. 

Cato, Lucius Hostilius, charges 
against, 67. 

Cato, Marcus Porcius, sneered at 
Scipio's character, 65. Suppo- 
sed to have instigated the Peti- 
lii, 65. Advocates an order 
respecting Scipio, after his 
death, 66. 

CatriSjWalloon camp-master, 304. 

Caudine Forks, account of the 
place, 43. Surrender of the 
Roman army in the, 47. 

Caudine peace, remarks on the, 
47, 50. Consideration of the, 
by the Roman senate, 52. 
Speeches respecting the, 52. 
See Caudium, Pontius, and Ro- 
man. 

Caudium, Livy's account of the 
surrender of the Roman army 
near, 40. Encampment of the 
Samnites near, 42. Stratagem 
practised on the Roman army, 
43. Visit to, by Romans, to sur- 
render themselves, 56, 57. A 
Roman army marches to, with 
the heralds, 56. See Caudine, 
Pontius, and Roman. 

Cavaliers, 188. 

Cavalry, trial between Grecian 
and Persian, in Thessaly, 11. 
On attacks by, 90. 

Cavendish, George, on Henry 
VIII., King of England, and 
Catharine of Aragon, his 
Queen, before the legatine 
court, 270, 274. His Life of 
Wolsey, 270. Obligations of 
Shakspeare to, 271. 



INDEX. 



387 



Cecill, Sir Robert, 321. 

Cecill, Sir Thomas, 321. 

Cellini, Benvenuto, on the death 
of Charles of Bourbon, 239. 

Cepas, Don Lopez, sent as deputy 
to the Sultan, 225. 

Cercopos, 18. 

Ceres Amphictyonis, temple of, 12, 

Ceri, Renzo da. Captain, 238, note, 
242,245. 

Chagai , Constantinople defiedthe, 
132. 

Chains, across the harbor at Con- 
stantinople, 115, 134. Across 
the port of Rhodes, 172. 

Chalcocondyles, 114. 

Charles V., proposition to the Diet 
by, respecting Luther's writings, 
141. Grants Luther a safecon- 
duct to Worms, 142. First Di- 
et of, at Worms, 142. Aided 
in his election by the Elector of 

\ Saxony, 142. His proposition 
to the Elector as to a safecon- 

/ duct for Luther, 144, note. 
Cites Luther to appear at 
Worms, 144, note ; grants him 
time to reply to charges, 147 ; 
age of, at this time, J 49, note. 
Opposes violation of Luther's 
safeconduct, 153. Luther writes 
to, 155. Proclaims Luther an 
outlaw, 157, note. John of 
Austria son of, 161. At war 
with Francis L , at the time of 
the siege of Rhodes, 213. Con- 
temporary monarchs with, 233. 
Disputes between Francis L 
and, 233 ; first war between 
them, 234. Secret agreement 
of, with Popes, 234. Openly 
demands Milan and Burgundy, 
234. Clement VIL sends let- 
ters and negotiators to, 264. 
Conditions offered by, 264. 
Nephew of Catharine, 273. Ef- 
fects an adjournment of a lega- 
tine court, 285, note. 

Charles of Bourbon, Duke, in the 
service of Charles V., goes to 
rescue Pavia, 235. Marches to 



Rome, 235, 236. Mortally 
wounded, 236, 239. Appeals 
to the soldiers, 237. Circum- 
stances connected with his death, 
239. Successor of, 248. 

Charnock, 318. 

Chilon, on the island of Cythera, 
25. 

Chios, Leonard of, 114. Ships 
from, 121. 

Chosroes, defied by Constantino- 
ple, 132. 

Church, abuses reformed in the 
Roman Catholic, 308. 

Cibo, Cardinal, 255. 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, on the 
Apology of Plato, 30. 

Civilization, obligations to Greek 
heroism for modern, 10. 

Claudius, in error respecting the 
Caudine peace, 47. 

Clement, Archbishop of Greeks 
at Rhodes, 179. Propositions 
to the Grand-master by, 220, 
221. 

Clement VIL, Pope, dispenses 
with the oath of Francis L, 
235. Enters into a league, 235. 
Escapes to the castle of St. 
Angeio, 243. Proposition to 
treat with, 246. Measures for 
securing, 248, 254. Situation 
of, 261. Colonna endeavors to 
release, 261, note, 264. Vine- 
yard of, burnt, 262. Proposition 
by, to surrender, 263. Sends 
legates to Francis L and Henry 
VHL, 264 ; letters and negotia- 
tors to the Emperor, 264. Con- 
ditions offered to, 264. Grants 
by, 265, Sells cardinals' hats, 
266. Gives hostages, 267. Ne- 
gotiation for relieving, 267. 
Enlarged, 268. Escapes, 268. 
Arrives at Orvieto, 268, 269. 
See Colonna. 

Cleodseus, 13. 

Cleombrotus, brother of Leonidas, 
13, 

Cleomenes, brother of Leonidas, 
13. G ergo daughter of, 27. 



388 



INDEX. 



Cleopatra, fleet of, 320. 

Clouds, The, Socrates ridiculed in 
30, 32. 

Cluys, Peter de, 176, 208. 

Cochlaeus, enemy of Luther, 153, 
154. 

Colonna family, at Rome, 244. 

Colonna, Fabricius, commander of 
Italians, at Rome, 248. 

Colonna, Pompey, Cardinal, insti- 
gator of the sack of Rome, 261. 
Remarks on, 261. Good con- 
duct of, 262. Reception of, by 
the Pope, 264. Selects hos- 
tages, 267, Reconciled to the 
Pope, 267. 

Colossus at Rhodes, 173. 

Commandry, 169, 7wte. 

Compellatory, 274. 

Conrad, Landamman of Uri, 95. 

Conrad Griininger, of Claris, 95. 

Constance, Council of, 99 ; not 
acknowledged as oecumenic, 
100. Huss burnt at, 100, 109, 
143. Pope elected at, 244, 
note. 
Constantino Palaeologus, Emperor, 
112. Prepares for the defence 
of Constantinople, 113. On the 
union of the Latins and Greeks 
by, 115. A hero, 118. Activ- 
ity of, 120. Retaliation by, 125. 
Sacrileges by, 125. Humbled, 
126. Last speech of, 127. In- 
fluence of his example, 128. 
Receives the sacrament, 128. 
Glorious fall of, 128. Remon- 
strates with Justiniani, 130. Last 
words and fear of, 131. Killed, 
131. Treatment of his body by 
Mohammed, 137. <Sc« Constan- 
tinople, Greeks, Mohammed II., 
and Turks. 
Constantinople, 10. Gibbon's ac- 
count of the conquest of, 111, 
112. Advantages from the con- 
quest of, 112. Christian indif- 
ference as to, 112, 123. Besieg- 
ed, 113. Number, of people 
in, 114 ; of warriors in, 114, 
115. Chain across the harbor 



of, 115, 134. Distraction in, 
before the conquest, 117. Out- 
line and situation of, 118. Sal- 
lies from, 118. Progress against 
the walls of, 119. Mines at- 
tempted at, 120, Turret ad- 
vanced against, 120, 121. Ves- 
sels with supplies fight their way 
to, 121. Double attack on, 124 
Attacked from a floating battery^ 
1^5. Massacres at, 125. Sacii- 
leges at, 125, 136. Scene in, 
before the final assault, 127,128. 
Final assault on, 129. Imme- 
diate cause of the loss of, 130. 
Entered by the Turks, 131, 
Had defied the power of the 
Chosroes, the Chagan, and the 
caliphs, 132. Consternation and 
disorder in, 132, 136. Treat- 
ment of captives there, 133. Es- 
cape of Christian vessels from, 
134. Disposition of the wealth 
of, 135. Destruction of the By- 
zantine libraries there, 136. En- 
tered by the Sultan in triumph, 
136. Mohammed II. establishes 
his residence at, 138. Renewal 
of population in, 139. Elec- 
tion and investiture of the Pa 
triarch of, 139. Churches of, 
shared between Turks and Chris- 
tians, 140. Mohammed II. con- 
queror of, 160. See Constan- 
tino, Greeks, Mohammed 11. , 
and Turks. 

Consuls, see Roman. 

Convented, meaning of, 274. 

Cooke of Winchester, apparitor, 
275. 

Coos, Turks repulsed at, 180. 

Copper coins, anecdote respecting, 
at the sack of Rome, 253. 

Cordus, Curicius, 143. 

Corinthians, four hundred, at 
Thermopylae, 12. 

Cornelian family, Nasica on the, 
70. 

Cornelius Arvina, Aulus, 57, 58. 
See Nasica, and Scipio. 

Corunna, 317, note. 



INDEX. 



389 



Corvus, Marcus Valerius, held the 
office of interrex, 52. 

Corydalus, traitor at Thermopylaj, 
17. 

Cosquin, 217, 223, 230. 

Cosso, a broad street at Zaragoza, 
328. Enemy on each side .of, 
328. Streets running into the, 
331. Reached by the French, 
336. Attempts to cross the, 336. 
Passed, 337. Six mines un- 
der the, 339. 

CourtSj remarks on Grecian, 32, 
33. See Henry VIII. 

Cremera, 96, note. 

Crete, 34. 

Criminals, on the execution of, at 
Athens, 34. 

Criton, conversation of Socrates 
with, respecting his children, 
35 ; his burial, 35 ; immortali- 
ty, 35. Socrates' injunctions 
on his sons before, 3-:. Con- 
versation with, about the poi- 
son, 37. Weeps, 38. Last 
words to, by Socrates, 39. 

Criton and Phcedon of Plato, 30. 

Crotus, Rector of the University 
at Erfurt, reception of Luther 
by, 143. 

Crown put upon Huss, 106, 107. 

Crusaders, 123. 

Crusades, 159. 

Culeo, Q,uintus Terentius, ap- 
pointed to hold an inquiry re- 
specting Scipio, QG. Feelings 
of, towards the Cornelian Aimi- 
ly, GQ, 67 ; towards Pubiius 
Scipio, 66. Lucius Scipio ar- 
raigned before, 67. Termina- 
tion of the proceedings by, 70. 
Judgement pronounced by, 73. 

Cumberland, Earl of, 321. ' 

Cunrat von Baumgarten, Wolfen- 
schiessen's attempt at an in- 
trigue with the wife of, 76. 
Kills Wolfenschiessen and flees 
to Uri, 78. Goes to Unterwal- 
den, 83. 

Curtogli, 181. 

Cythera, the island, Chilon on, 25. 
33* 



D. 

Darius, sons of, killed at Ther 
mopylse, 21. Relatives of, 21 

Daughters of Jerusalem, convent 
of, 336. 

David of Junkerberg, 94. 

Dazas, Guyot, 177. 

Death, of Socrates, by Plato, 28 ; 
remarks on it, 29. Socrates on, 

33, 34. Sentence of, passed on 
Socrates, 33. Explanation of, 
by Socrates, 34. Time of exe- 
cuting sentence of, at Athens, 

34. Delay in executing sentence 
of, on Socrates, 34. Of Huss, 
99, 109. 

Decius, Pubiius, 56. 

Delif, meaning of, 84, note. 

Delivery of the four Swiss Forest 
Districts, 74. 

Delos, sacred ship annually de- 
spatched to, from Athens, 34. 

Demaratus, consultation of, by 
Xerxes, before the battle of 
Thermopylse, 15. Advice by, 
as to subduing Sparta, 24 ; not 
followed, 26. Not friendly to 
the Spartans, 26. 

Demophilus, leader of the Thes- 
pians at Thermopylse, 20. 

Des Reaux, sent to Naples, 215. 

Destruction of the Invincible Ar- 
mada, in 1588, 308. 

Dialects, Ionic and Doric, 9. 

Dialogues of Plato, 30. Their 
purport, 35. 

Diamond of a prelate at Rome, 
254. 

Dieneces, speech by, at Thermo- 
pylse, 22. 

Diet, persons composing the, 141. 
See Charles V., and Luther. 

Diez, Blaise, traitor at Rhodes, 
209. Testimony of, 210, 211. 
Fate of, 212. 

Dikes in Holland, opened upon 
the Spaniards, 292. 

Diodromas, Demophilus son of,20. 

Dispensation by the Pope, 271. 

Dithyrambus, conspicuous at Ther- 
mopylae, 22. 



390 



INDEX. 



Djem, 231, note. See Zizim. 

Doric dialect, 9. 

Dorieus, brother of Leonidas» 13. 

Doryssus, 13. 

Douza, John, Latin poet, Govern- 
or of Leyden, 289. Acted well, 
290. Defeats conspiracies, 295. 

Doyle, General, sends a convoy to 
Zaragoza, 332. 

Draco, John, 143. 

Drake, Sir Francis, destroys ves- 
sels at Cadiz, 309. Vice-Ad- 
miral, 314. Yielding of Don 
Pedro de Valdez to, 322. 

Drethelm, of Schaffhausen, 96. 

Ducas, on the Turkish forces be- 
fore Constantinople, 114. Up- 
braids the Greeks, 133. 

Ducat, value of the, 135, note. 

Duke of Austria, see Leopold. 

Duke of Bavaria, 101. See Lewis. 

Duke of Orleans, 279. 

Dutch, see Hollanders, Leyden, 
and Netherlands. 

Dyras, the river, 11. 



Ebernburg, the castle of, 144. 

Ebro, Zaragoza on the, 327, 328. 

Echecrates, 38, 39. 

Echestratus, 13. 

Eck, John von, official to the Elec- 
tor, accusation of Luther by, 
146. Luther's vehement antag- 
onist, 146, note. 

Edward IIL, 320. 

Egloffof Ems, 89, 90, 95. 

Einbeck beer, sent to Luther, 151. 

Eisenach, Luther sick at, 143. See 
Wartburg. 

Elector, see Frederic. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 272. Aids the 
Low Countries, 308, 309. En- 
mity of the Pope and Philip IL 
towards, 308. IMeasures for 
conquering, 308. Allows de- 
struction of vessels at Cadiz, 
309. Preparations of, against the 
Armada, 309, 313. Her speech, 
309, 315. Henry, Lord Houns- 
don, general for the person of. 



313. Economical; recalls four 
ships, 319. Informed as to the 
Armada, 320. Sends out ships, 
320. See Armada. 

Elnbogen, 107. 

Emar, George, 175. , 

Emjjezzlement, impeachment of 
the Scipios for, 60. 

Emperor, use of the word king 
and, in Germany, 75, note. 

Ems, Egloffof, Knight, 89, 90, 05. 
Ulrich of, 89, 90. 

Engelberg, 76. 

England, Protestantism in, in Eliz- 
abeth's time, 308. Reflections 
on, if it had been conquered, 
310, Invasion of, by the Span- 
ish, threatened, 313. Report 
of the conquest of, 323. See 
Armada, Howard, and Eliza- 
beth. 

England, Knights of the Language 
of, 160, 165. Commander of 
the, 175. Bastion of, at Rhodes, 
175 ; attacked, 188 ; mines 
sprung under it, 194 ; terrible 
fighting there, 194, 195 ; as- 
saults on, by Mustapha,195,197. 
Bravery of Knights of, 198. 
Further attacks and slaughter 
at the bastion of, 201, 209, 216. 

English fleet, divided into two 
squadrons, against the Armada, 

314. Forces of the, 318. Sum- 
mons to the, 320. Action with 
the, 321. See Armada, and 
Howard. 

Enieni, 11. 

Ennius, Q,uintus, statue of, 68. 

Entlibuch troops, at Sempach, 92. 

Ephialtes, audience of, with Xerx- 
es, 17. Traitor at Thermopy- 
lae, 17. Fate of, 17. Accom- 
panies Hydarnes through the 
path, 18, 19. Advice by, to 
Xerxes, 20. Greeks retreat be- 
fore, 21. 

Equinoxes, see Tides. 

Erfurt, reception of Luther at, 143. 

Eric of Brunswick, Duke, sends 
beer to Luther, 151. 



[NDEX. 



391 



Erioch, Siegfried of, 95. 

Ermellino, Cardinal, 238, 241. 
Hoisted into the castle of St. 
Angelo, 244. 

Escheng, Hermann of, 94. 

Eschenloh, Lord Henry of, 90, 
93. 

Etruscans, 40. 

Eumenes, King, 73. 

Eurycrates, 13. 

Eurycratides, 13. 

Euryderaus, Ephialtea son of, 17. 

Eurymachus, killed at Platseae, 24. 

Eurysthenes, 13. 

Eurytus, valor of, at Thermopy- 
lae, 23. 



F. 

Fabii family, 96. 

Fabius, Quintus, 96. 

Faithful, meaning of, 251, note. 

Fanaticism, an inventor of torture, 
255, note. 

Fannius, Caius, on the conviction 
of Scipio, 73. 

Farfan, Chevalier, despatched to 
Candia for provisions, 215. 

Faussebraves, 174. 

Feilitsch, Philip of, 145. 

Feracle, fortress of, 181. 

Ferdinand and Isabella, 271. 

Ferhat Basha reenforces Soliman 
before Rhodes, 228. 

Feudal militia, extinction of, 233. 

Fine, Socrates on, 33. 

Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, coun- 
sel for Catharine, 275. Opposes 
Henry, in court, 280. Defends 
the Queen, 281. 

Flachsland, 95. 

Flanders, Cardinal Bentivoglio 
Papal nuncio at, 287. See Par- 
na. 

Flemings, 323. 

Florence, Cardinal of, attempts to 
silence Huss, 103. Greeks go 
to, after the conquest of Con- 
stantinople, 112. 

Fliilen, Tell carried towards, 85. 

Fontanus, on the piety of the 



Grand-master at Rhodes, 179, 
On d'Amaral, 212, 213. 

Fountaine, De la, drives miners, 
194. 

France, Knights of the Language 
of, 160. Position of the, at 
Rhodes, 175. See French. 

France, succors from, not received, 
214. 

Francis I., of France, at war with 
Charles V., at the time of the 
siege of Rhodes, 213. Con- 
temporary monarchs with, 233. 
Demands Navarre and Naples, 

234. Lays siege to Pavia, 235. 
Captured, 235. Words by, 

235. Signs a peace, and resigns 
Burgundy, 235. Returns home, 
2-35. Does not fulfil the treaty, 
235. The Pope sends a legate 
to, 264. See Charles V. 

Francis von Sickingen, 144. 

Franenberg, George, German 
General, remark to Luther by, 
145. Goes to rescue Pavia, 
235. Privations of his troops, 
238 ; change in their appear- 
ance, 259 ; their conduct, 259. 

Franque tower at Rhodes, 175. 

Fratres arvales, 40. 

Frederic, bastard of Brandis, 93. 

Frederic, Duke, Elector of Saxony, 
aided the election of Charles V., 
142. Insists on a fair hearing 
for Luther, 142. Exertions of 
to protect Luther, 144, note. 
Duke John, brother to, 145. 
His admiration of Luther, 151. 
Extracts from, 152. See Charles 
v., and Luther. 

Frederic of Thunau, 145, 150. 

Frederic of Zollern, 90. 

Frederic II. paid Panin, 244, note. 

French, at the siege of Zaragoza, 
327,328. Fury of the, 329. Re- 
treat, 331. Appear again before 
Zaragoza, 333. Slow progress 
of the , 335. Arrive at the Cos- 
so, 336. Disheartened and 
murmur, 337. See Lasnes, and 
Zaragoza. 



392 



INDEX. 



Fresnoi, Chevalier du, killed, 205. 
Freundsberg, see IVanenberg. 
Friesshard, killed, 93. 
Frobisher, 314. 
Froissart, 320, note. 
Frundsberg, see Franenberg. 
Fuller, citation from, 110. 
Furfan, Marin, 177. 
Furst, Walter, consulted by 

Stauffach, 81. Informed of 

Gessler's fate, 86. 
Furst, Stauffach, and Melchtal, 

league by, in Switzerland, 82. 

Results of the league, 88. 
Furstenberg, Count John of, 90. 

G. 

Gabours, 126. 

Galata, private treaty with the 
Genoese_colony of, 112. Sub- 
urb of, enclosed, 113. Vessels 
transported, near, 124. Evacua- 
tion of, 134. Fortifications of, 
destroyed, 139. 

Galleasses, 317, 318. 

Galleons, 317. 

Gardiner, Stephen, Bishop of 
Winchester, 275, 7iote. 

Gauls, on ransoming Rome from 
the, 46. On the defence of 
Rome against the, 47. Rome 
subdued by, 50. 

Gazan, General, 338. 

Gennadius, the monk, advice by, 
on a union of the Greeks and 
Latins, 116. The crosier de- 
livered to, 140. 

Genoese vessels, arrive with sup- 
plies at Constantinople, 121. 
Escape, 134. 

Genseric, the Vandal, 246. 

Gentili, Andelot, 175. 

Gentleman usher, 270. 

George, Duke of Saxony, 153, 
154. 

German Empire, see Luther. 

Germans, conduct of, at the sack 
of Rome, 237. Addressed by 
Charles of Bourbon, 237. Cut 
down the populace, 246. En- 
ter the city, 248. Extortions of 



riches by, 253. Less cruel than 
Spaniards, 257. Obduracy of 
the, 264. Persons delivered as 
hostages to the, by the Pope, 
265. Inclined to peace, 267. 
At the siege of Ostend, 302. 

Germany, Knights of the Language 
of, 160. Commander of the, 
at Rhodes, 175. Amaral to 
sustain, 176. Post of, attacked, 
188. Valdner, Commander of 
Knights of, 198. 

Gerrard, Thomas, 321. 

Gersau, troops from, at Sempach, 
92. Bravery of a man of, 95. 

Gessler, the bailiff', cruel treat- 
ment by, 76, 79. Causes a 
castle to be built at Uri, 79 ; 
name given to it by, 79. Re- 
quires reverence to a hat on a 
pole, 80, 83. Castle of, at 
Kussnacht, 80. Conversation 
of, with Wernherr of Stauffach, 
80. His order not obeyed by 
Tell, S3. Arraigns Tell, 83,84. 
Killed by Tell, 86. Castle of, 
destroyed, 88. See Tell. 

Gesslers, at the battle of Sempach, 
89. 

Gessner, Burkard, 95. 

Ghibelline party, 243, 244. 

Giaours, 126, 7iote. 

Gibbon, Edward, birth and death 
of. 111. His Decline and final 
Fall of the Roman Empire, 111. 
His account of the Conquest of 
Constantinople, 112. 

Glapius, Luther urged to see, 144. 

Claris, or Glarus, 76, 97. Troops 
of, at Sempach, 92. Conrad 
Griininger of, 95. 

Gold rings, badges of distinction, 
51, note. 

Gonzagua, Ferdinand, 248. 

Gonzagua, Lewis de, 247,248,268. 

Good Christian, meaning of, 240, 
note. 

Gorge, Arthur, 321. 

Gorgo, wife of Leonidas, discov- 
ery by, respecting waxen tab 
lets, 27. 



INDEX. 



393 



Gouda, 295. 

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, 
II tribune, enmity of Scipio and, 

63. His remarks on Scipio, 
63 ; befriends and commends 
him, 64. Effect of his speech, 

64. Thanks to, by the Roman 
senate, 64. Remarks on the 
speech of, 68. Facts mention- 
ed by, respecting Scipio, 69. 
Marriage of Scipio's daughter 
to, 69. On the judgement on 
Scipio, 73. 

Grand Crosses, 165. 

Gratz in Styria, 107. 

Gravesend, fortified, 314. 

Grecian, see Thermopylae. 

Greece, first and second attempts 
to subdue, 10. 

Greek woman, bravery of a, 202. 

Greeks, condition of the, before 
the conquest of Constantinople 
by the Turks, 111. Emigrate 
and give an impulse to letters, 
after the conquest, 112. Union 
of Latins and, 115. Pathetic 
scene of the, before the last as- 
sault on them, 128. Valor of, 
129. Overwhelmed, 131. Flee, 
131. Treatment of the, 133, 
138. Infringements on the priv- 
ileges of, by Selim, 140. Treat- 
ment of, at Rhodes, by Turks 
and Latins, 179. Protestations 
of, 201. Private meetings of the, 
220. Representations by, to 
the Metropolitan, 220. See Con- 
stantine, Constantinople, Mo- 
hammed IL, and Turks. 

Gregory, Patriarch, 116, 

Griffith, Master, General Receiver 
of Catharine, 278. 

Grimereaux, Chevalier de, 199. 

Grimm, Hermann of Grunenberg, 
89. 

Grolee, Anthony de, standard of 
the Order of Knights given to, 
177. Deputy to Soliman IL, 
223. Detained, 224. Conducts 
deputies to camp, 226. 

Groyne, 317, 319. 



Grunenberg, Hermann Grimm of, 

89. 
Griininger, Conrad, of Claris, 95 
Guise, Duke of, 313. Preparations 

of the, early, 317. To have 

landed in the West of England, 

319. 
Gundoldingen, Petennann of, 92, 

95. 
Gunpowder, want of, at Rhodes, 

191. Manufacture of, at the 

siege of Zaragoza, 332. 
Gutt, Nicholas, 96. 

H. 

Haerlem, 291. 

Hair, adorned by Greeks before a 

dangerous enterprise, 15. Set 

Horse-hair. 
Halicarnassus, Herodotus born at, 

9. 
Hallwyl, Thuring and John of, 

89. Killed, 94. 
Hannibal, exiled from Carthage, 

60, 66. Scipio's victory over, 

62, 64. With Antiochus, at hia 

defeat, 71. 
Hanns, of Oberkirch, 94. Of 

Vauxmarcus, 95. OfRandegh, 

96. Of Tulach, 96. 
Hans, of Bonstetten, 91. 
Hapsburg, Rudolph of. Emperor 

of Germany, 74. Counts of, 94. 

See Austria. 
Harmalidas, son of, killed at Ther- 
mopylae, 22. 
Harrass, Rudolph the, 94. 
Hasenburg, John, Lord of, 91, 95. 
Hasenbiihel, battle at, 90. 
Hassan, the Janizary, 131. 
Hatstatt, 95. 
Hawkins, Sir John, 314. 
Hegel, on Socrates, 30. 
Helisea, character of the court of, 

32. Socrates tried by the, 32 ; 
passes sentence of death on him, 

33. Address to the, by Socra- 
tes, 33. 

Helvetia, 74. See Switzerland. 
Hemlock, see Poison. 
Heramann of Rheinach, 96. 



394 



INDEX. 



Hendorfs, three, killed, 95. 

Henneberg, see William. 

Henricug urges the execution of 
John Huss, 101. 

Henry VIII. of England, contem- 
porary with Charles V. and 
Francis I., 233. League under 
the protection of, 235. To have 
an estate in Naples, 235. Cav- 
endish's account of, and of 
Catharine of Aragon, his Queen, 
before the legatine court, con- 
sisting of Cardinals Wolsey and 
Campeggio, in 1527, 270, 274. 
Facts respecting, 271. Succeeds 
his father, 271. IMarriage of, 
with Catharine, 271. Dispen- 
sation to, by the Pope, 271. A 
tyrant, 271. Gross ideas of, 
272. Compared with Elizabeth, 
272. Lives eighteen years with 
Catharine, 272. Pretends com- 
punction for his marriage, 272, 
278, 279 ; importunes the Pope 
to annul it, 273 ; measures for 
trying its validity, 273. Lodged 
at Bridewell, 274. Summon- 
ed to the legatine court, 274. 
Counsel for, 275. Called in 
court, 275. Catharine's appeal 
to, in court, 276. Remarks by, 
on the Queen, 278, 279. Ex- 
cuses the Lord Cardinal, 278. 
Speech by, 278, 279. Sends 
for Wolsey, 282. Lord of Wilt- 
shire sent by, 282. Sends car- 
dinals to persuade the Queen, 
282. Judgement respecting, not 
rendered, 285. See Wolsey. 

Henry of Eschenloh, Lord, 90, 93. 

Henry, Lord Hounsdon, General 
for Elizabeth's person, 313. 

Henry von Melchtal, see Melchtal. 

Henry of Moos, 92. 

Heralds, 56, 57, 58. See Arvina. 

Hercules, the Dyras and, 12. An- 
cestor of Leonidas, 13, 14. 

Herennius, see Pontius. 

Heresy, Luther excommunicated 
for, 142. 

Heretics, violation of promises to, 



100. Mass not said before, 101. 

Hermann of Escheng, 94. 

Herodotus, notice of, and of his 
writings, 9. Influence of, on 
Thucydides, 9. His account of 
the battle of ThermopyljE, 11. 

Hessen, Cobanns, 143. 

Hieronymus, M., on Huss, 107, 
110. 

Historical criticism began with 
Thucydides, 10. 

Hobby, Sir Edward, despatched 
by the Admiral to Elizabeth, 320 

Hochberg, see Otto. 

Hohengollern, banner of, 95. 

Hohenrechberg, Albert of, 95. 

Holiness, Pope styled, 246, note. 

Holland, see Netherlands. 

Hollanders oppose the Spanish 
Armada, 316. 

Holy Land, pilgrimages to the, 158. 

Holy League, 235. See Leagues 

Holy Virgin, 176. 

Hooks, 294, note. 

Horse-hair, torture by, 255, note. 

Horseman sent to Thermopylae to 
reconnoiter, 14. 

Horsetails, meaning of, 129, note 

Hospital for pious pilgrims, 159. 

Hospitallers, Brothers of St. John, 
Knights Hospitallers of St. John 
of Jerusalem, origin of the Or- 
der, 159. Vows taken by, 159. 
Divided into eight Languages, 
160. Opposition of the Order to 
the Turks, 160. In Cyprus, 160. 
Conquer Rhodes, 160. Called 
Knights of Rhodes, 160. Old 
treaty with the, 226. Zizim 
surrenders himself to the, 231, 
note. See Knights. 

Hostages, given by the Romans, 
at Caudium, 48 ; to Porsena, 
58. Given at the sack of Rome, 
265 ; treatment of the, 265 ; 
escape, 266. 

Hostilius, see Cato. 

Hounsdon, see Henry. 

Hours, on numbering, 241, 7iote. 

House of Austria, or Hapsburg^ 
see Austria, and Hapsburg. 



INDEX. 



395 



Howard, Charles, Lord High Ad- 
miral of England, 314. Sum- 
mons the English fleet, upon the 
approach of Spaniards, 320. 
Notilies Elizabeth, 320. Asks 
aid, 320. Attacks the Armada, 
321, Within the battle during 
the night, 322. Humane act of, 
323. Ships under the com- 
mand of, 325. See Armada. 

HoweSjEdmund, publishes Stowe's 
Chronicle, 311. 

Hugh, Don, 267. 

Hund, Burkhard, 156. 

Hungary, Mohammed H., aided by 
the ambassador of, 123. Pio- 
neers from, aid the Turks 
against Rhodes, 181. 

Huss, John, Theobald's account 
of the Death of, 99. Birth, 
studies, and preaching of, 99. 
Safeconduct to the council at 
Constance promised to, 100. 
Imprisoned, 100. Examinations 
and execution of, 100, 109. 
Reminds Sigismundof his prom- 
ise, 100, 104. Place of the exe- 
cution of, 100,109. Final exam- 
ination of, 100. Taken from pris- 
on to the cathedral, 100. Mass 
not said before, 100. Clad in 
mass vestments, 101, 105. Exe- 
cution of, urged in a sermon and 
a speech, 101. Charges against, 
read, 102. Attempts replies, 102. 
Silenced, 102. Sentence pas- 
sed upon, 104. Burning of his 
books, 104,107. J)egraded,105. 
Addresses the people, 105, 107, 

108. Stripped, 105. Cross 
made on his head, 106. The 
crown put upon, 106, 107. Giv- 
en over to Duke Lewis, 106. 
Effect of his sentence on Caspar 
Schlick, 106. Conducted to the 
stake, 107. Remarks on, 107. 
Tied to the stake, 108. Re- 
fuses to renounce errors, 108. 
Burnt, 109. Treatment of his 
body, 109. Clothing of, burnt, 

109. Ashes of, thrown into the 



Rhine, 109. Luther reminded 
of the fate of, 142. 

Hussey, Nicholas, 175. 

Hussites, the War of the, 99. 

Hutten, Ulrich of, encourages Lu- 
ther, 146. 

Hydarnes, attacks the Greeks, at 
Thermopylse, and is repulsed, 
16. Detached to the path guard- 
ed by the Phoceans, 17. 

Hyllus, 13. 

Hyperanthes, son of Darius, killed 
at Thermopylae, 21. 

Hystaspes, 21. 

L 

Immortality, belief of Socrates in, 
30. Doctrine of, argued by Soc- 
rates, 35, 36. 

Impeachment of the Scipios, 60. 

Imperialists prevail at Rome, 241. 
See Germans, and Spaniards. 

Imprisonment, Socrates on, 33. 

Im-Thurm, the nobles, 96. 

Infanta, visit tt) Ostend by the, af- 
ter its surrender, 306, 307. 
Commends Spinola, 307. 

Infantry, on attacks by, 90. 

Inquisition, torture by the, 255, 
note. 

Ionic dialect, 9. 

Isell, dikes of the, opened, 292. 

Isidore, Cardinal, 115. Escape 
of, 134- 

Italian nations, three early, 40. 

Italian soldiers, enter Rome, un- 
der Colonnaand Gonzagua,248. 
At the siege of Ostend, 302. 

Italy, three prominent early na- 
tions in, 40. Divided into small 
states, in the sixteenth century, 
233. 

Italy, Knights of the Language of, 
160. Desertion among the, 169. 
Retire to Candia, 170. Pre- 
vailed on to return to Rhodes, 
171. Commander of, 175. At- 
tacks on the bastion of, 188, 190, 
196, 209, 216. Bravery of the 
Knights of, 196. Bastion of, 
ruined, 215. 



396 



INDEX. 



J. 

James I., grant to Stowe by, 312. 

Janiculum, at Rome, 247. 

Janizaries, 113. Paternity of, 
126. Come fresh into action, 
129. Bravery and death of, 
131. Testimony of three, 140. 
Complain and mutiny before 
Rhodes, 183, 185. Disheart- 
ened and murmur, 197. Yield, 
204. Violate the treaty at 
Rhodes, 230. See Aga. 

Jaxi, mission of, to Lycia, 177. 
Treachery towards, 178. Tor- 
ture and death of, 178. 

Jerome of Prague, 107, 110. 

Jerusalem, pilgrimages to, 158. 

Jewish physician, treachery of a, at 
Rhodes, 187, 199. Condemna- 
tion of, 199. 

Joachim, Elector of Brandenburg, 
153, 154. 

Joachim de St. Aubin, 175. 

Job, the Arabian martyr, 139. 

John XXni., Pope, promise to 
Huss by, 100. 

John of Austria, 161. 

John von Eck, see Eck. 

John of Hallwyl, 89. Killed, 
94. 

John of Hasenburg, 91, 95. 

John von Miiller, see Miiller. 

John of Oberkirch, 90. 

John of Ochsenstein, 90, 95. 

John Palaeologus, 115. 

John, Duke, brother to the Elector 
of Saxony, at Weimar, supplies 
Luther with travelling money, 
143, 145, 152. 

Jonas, Tartus, 145. 

Julian de Medicis, 213. 

Julius II., Pope, dispensation 
granted to Henry VIII. by, 271. 

Jnnkerberg, David of, 94. 

Juno, acknowledgements to, by 
Scipio, 62. 

Jupiter, acknowledgements to, by 
Scipio, 62. 

Justiniani, John, succors Constan- 
tine, 115. Donative to, 115. 
Activity of, 120. Criminates 



the great Duke, 126. Wound- 
ed, 130. Retirement of, 130. 

K. 

King, use of the word in Germany, 
75, note. 

Knights of Rhodes, 160. Repulse 
Mohammed II., 161. Intercept 
Turkish convoys, 161. Valor 
of, 161, 182, 183. Malta given 
to the, 162. Defend Malta, 162. 
Termination of the Order of, 
162. Order of, revived, 162. 
Philipde Villiersde I'Isle Adam, 
Grand-master of the Order 
164. Six hundred, for the de- 
fence of Rhodes, 172. Soliman 
on the, 185, 186. Business of, 
during a sally, 191. Encourag 
ed by the Grand-master, 200 
Bravery of, at the English has 
tion, 202. Eulogiums on the, 
208. Leave Rhodes, 232. See 
Adam, and Hospitallers. 

Kunigsfelden, bodies carried to, 
after the battle at Sempach, 97. 

Kraft of Lichtenstein, 90. 

Kussnacht, castle of Gessler at, 
80, 85. Lord of, 92. 



Lacedsemon, left to Nabis, 72. See 
Sparta. 

Lacedaemonians, 14. Their re- 
ception of Xerxes' horseman, 
at Thermopylae, 14. See Leo- 
nidas, Spartans, and Xerxes. 

Lacoste, General, convent of the 
Capuchins, at Zaragoza, fortifi- 
ed by, 336. 

Lances, at Sempach, 90. Shafts 
of, shivered, 92. 

Landenberg, Beringer von, the 
bailiff, cruel treatment by, 76 ; 
ofthe Melchtals, 78. Exactions 
by, on new-year's days, 87. 
Flight of, 88. 

Landinns, Bishop, sermon by, 
on heresy and against Hass, 
101. 

Landvogts, 75. See Bailiffs. 



INDEX. 



391 



Lango, surrender of, demanded, 
223. 

Lasnes, French Marshal, assumes 
the command at the siege of 
Zaragoza, 333. Progresses grad- 
ually, 334. Encourages his ex- 
hausted troops, 337. Assaults 
the convent of St. Lazar, 338. 
Rejects proposals, 338. Depu- 
tation to, 340. See French, and 
Zaragoza. 

Lati clavi, 51, note. 

Latins, 40. League by the, 40. 
Hated by Greeks, 118. Pro- 
testations of, 201. See Greeks. 

Laurentia,Acca, agricultural priest- 
hood established, in honor of, 
40, note. 

Lautrec, 264, note. See Lutrec. 

Laws, Socrates' regard for, 29, 
31, 35. 

Leagues, among early Italian na- 
tions, 40. In Switzerland, 82. 
Between Clement VIL, Francis 
I., the republic of Venice, and 
the Duke of Milan, against 
Charles V., and under the pro- 
tection of Henry VHL, 235 ; 
Lutrec commander of the army 
245, note ; fear of the approach- 
ing army, 254. 

Leicester, see Robert. 

Lemnos, conditionally promised to 
Justiniani, 115. 

Lentulus, Lucius, speech of, at the 
Caudine Forks, 46. 

Lenzburgers, killed, 96. 

Leo X., Pope, secret agreement 
of Charles V. with, 234. 

Leobotes, 13. 

Leon, King of Sparta, 13. 

Leonard of Chios, 114. 

Leonidas, 10. Influence of his 
example, 11. Commander-in- 
chief against the Modes and 
Persians, 13. Ancestors of, 13, 
14. His accession to the throne 
of Sparta, 13. Troops under, 
13, 14. Urged on, by his coun- 
trymen, 14. Prevails on troops 
to remain at Thermopylae, 14. 
34 



Resolution of, not to retreat, 19. 
Annunciation of the oracle, re- 
specting, 19. Troops remaining 
with, 19, 20. Advances against 
the enemy, 20. Desperate valor 
of, and of his troops, 21. Kill- 
ed, 21. Body of, rescued by the 
Spartans, 21. Bones of, carried 
to Sparta, 21, note. Annual fu- 
neral orations and games in com- 
memoration of, 21, note. Treat- 
ment of the body of, by Xerxes, 
26. Gorgo, wife of, 27. 

Leontiades, Theban troops con- 
ducted by, to Thermopylae, 13. 
Joins Xerxes, 24. Son of, kill- 
ed at PlatJEae, 24. 

Leopold, Duke of Austria, marches 
to Sempach, 89. Illustrious per- 
sons and nobles under 89. Ap- 
pearance of, 90. Preparations 
of, for battle, 90. Warnings to, 
91. Ranks of, pressed, 93. Re- 
ceives a banner, 93. Seeks 
death, 94. Struck down, 94. 
Malterer protects the body of, 
94. Burial place of, 97. See 
Swiss. 

Leoprepis, Simonides son of, 23. 

Lepanto, battle of, 161, and 161, 
note. 

Lewis, Duke of Bavaria, 101. 
Huss delivered to, 106. Ex- 
horts Huss to renounce errors, 
108 ; orders his clothes to be 
burnt, 109. 

Lewis, Elector of the Palatinate at 
Worms, 145. Opposes viola- 
tion of safeconduct to Luther> 
153. 

Leyden, Siege of, by Bentivoglio, 
287. Description of, 288. Suc- 
cor cut oft' from, 289. Douza 
governor of, 289. Measures for 
supplying, with provisions, 290. 
Relieved, 294. Particulars of 
the sufferings in, 295. See Ley- 
denists. 

Leydenists, prepare for defence, 
289. Reply to summons to 
surrender, 289, note. Suffer for 
G. E. 



398 



INDEX. 



provisions, 290, 293, 294. See 
Leyden. 

Lichtenstein, Kraft of, 90. Lords 
of, 94. 

Lindo, ca«tle of, 181. 

Lion of stone, at Thermopylae, 21. 

Lioncel, Berenger de, 175. 

Liternum, Scipio's retirement to, 
and burial at, 62, 64, 68. 

Livius, Lucius, tribune, 53. 

Livy, his account of the surrender 
of the Roman army, near Cau- 
dium, 40. Facts respecting, 60. 
His account of the Impeachment 
of the Scipios, 60. 

Lo, Werner of, killed, 96. 

Locri, tumult raised at, by Ple- 
rainius, 61. 

Locrians, see Opuntian. 

Lombardy, troops sent to, by Pope 
Adrian VL, 214. 

London, petition to the Mayor and 
Aldermen of, by Stowe, 311. 
Uncharitable ,312. Preparations 
of, against the Spanish Armada, 
313. 

Louis XL, possession of Burgundy 
by, 234. 

Louis XVL, fate of, 112. 

Louis XVIIL replies to a proposi- 
tion by Napoleon, 235. 

Lowers, castle of, destroyed, 88. 

Luceria, Samnites reported to be 
besieging, 42. Romans go to 
the relief of, 42. 

Lucerne, of Rotenburg, bailiffs of, 
75. Conduct of inhabitants 
of, 76. Flight to, 88. Sempach 
near, 89. Troops from, at Sem- 
pach, 92. Troops commanded 
by the avoyer of, 92. Bravery 
of the troops of, 92. Bodies bur- 
ied at, 98. 

Luther, Martin, The Appearance of, 
before the Diet of the German 
Empire, at Worms, in the year 
1521,141. Remarks on, and on 
his Declaration, 141. Writings 
of, prohibited, and read, 141, 153. 
Excommunicated, 14 1,1 42. Na- 
tional feeling respecting his writ- 



ings, 142. Safeconduct to Worms 
granted to, 142, \AA,note. Sub- 
ject of the Elector of Saxony, 
142. Included in the bull of the 
Pope, 142. Replies to the bull, 
142. Heroism of, 142, 145, 
157, note. Reminded of the 
fote of Huss, 142, 143. Bold 
stand of, against the Pope and 
Church, 142, 146. Carriage and 
travelling money given to, 143. 
Reception of, at Erfurt, 143. 
Sick, 143, 144. Curiosity to 
see, on his journey, 143. Re- 
plies to discouragements, 143. 
Writes to Spalatine, 144. In- 
trigues against, 144, and 144, 
7iote. Urged to go to the castle 
of Ebernburg, 144. Accompa- 
nied by Sturm, as herald, 144, 
note. His reply to Spalatine, 
about devils and tiles, 145. 
Arrival, reception, and lodg- 
ings of, at Worms, 145. Sum- 
moned to the council, 145. 
Thronged, 145, 146. Encour- 
agements to, by Frundsberg, 
145 ; by Ulrich of Hutten, 
146 ; by the multitude, 146. 
To say nothmg, except when 
called upon, 146. Charge a- 
gainst, respecting books, and 
his replies, 146. Schurf ad- 
vocate and protector of, 147. 
Spalatine cited on, at Worms, 
151. Visiters of, 151. Meas- 
ures to procure recantation 
from, 153, 154 ; to deprive 
of safeconduct, 153, Private 
conversations with, 154. Or- 
ders to, to return home, 155. 
Complains that his doctrine had 
not been inquired into, 155. 
Reception of, at Hirschfeld, 
156. Seized and carried to the 
castle of Wartburg, 156 ; hia 
residence there, 157, note. See 
Charles V., Frederic, and Spal- 
atine. 
Lutrec, Commander of the army 
of the league, 245, notCy 264, 



INDEX. 



399 



note. Advantages gained by, 
267, 269. 

Lycia, signal fires in, 177. 

Lycon hates and persecutes Soc- 
rates, 31. 

Lygdamis the usurper, 9. 

Lysias, Socrates declines the aid 
of, 32. 

M. 

Macedonia, left to Philip, 72. 

Mackintosh, Sir James, on a 
speech by Elizabeth, 309, 315. 

Mselius, Quintus, tribune, 53. 

Malicome, Chevalier Binde, de- 
fends the bastion of England, 
216. 

Malta, Knights of, see Hospital- 
lers. 

Malterer, Martin, and Leopold, 94. 

Manlius, Cneius, aimed at, 66. 
Charges against, 71. 

Manosque, 172, 180, 208, 212. 

Mansfield, Lord, on Socrates, 28. 

Mantineans, five hundred, at 
Thermopylae, 12. 

Mantua, Marchioness of, treat- 
ment of the, at Rome, 257. 

Marathon, Persians defeated at, 
10. 

Marheinecke's account of the ap- 
pearance of Luther before the 
Diet at Worms, 141. 

Maron, distinguished at Thermop- 
ylae, 22. Inscription to, 22. 

Marquet, Raimond, 177. Deputy 
to Soliman IL,225. 

Martin V,, Pope, of the Colonna 
family, 244, note. 

Martinengo, Gabriel, escape of, 
from Candia to Rhodes, 167. 
Effects of, confiscated, 168. 
Honored, 168. Voted into the 
Order of Knights, 169. Pen- 
sioned, 169. Power given to, 
169. Advantages received from, 
169. Carries on the works, 172. 
Entrenchments made by, 192, 
217. Discovers a mine, 194. 
Wounded in the eye, 207. 
Rushes on the Turks, 217. 



Counsel of, to the Grand-mas- 
ter, 221. Meets Turks with a 
letter, 223. 

Mary, daughter of Henry VHL, 
279. 

Mass, not said before Huss, 101. 

Maurice, Counrt, successful at 
Sluys, 305, 306. Did not re- 
lieve Ostend, 306. 

Mauselle, Henri de, 177. Killed, 
195. 

Maximus, Q,uintus Fabius, office 
of interrex held by, 52. 

Mazagran, attack on French at, 
327, note. 

Medal, after the destruction of the 
Armada, 310. 

Medes and Persians, battle be- 
tween the Greeks and the, at 
Thermopylae, 16. See The- 
bans. 

Medicis, Julian de, 213. 

Medina, see Perez. 

Megistias, predicts the destruction 
of Greeks at Thermopylae, 19, 
20. Facts respecting, 20. In- 
scription on the tomb of, 22. 

Melampus, 20. 

Melampygus, the rock, 18. 

Melas, the river, 12. 

Melchtal, Arnold von, 78. Strikes 
a servant and flees to Uri, 78, 
82. Enters into a league, 82. 
Goes to Unterwalden, 83. See 
Furst. 

Melchtal, Henry von, cattle taken 
from, by a landvogt, 78. Cruel 
treatment of, 79. 

Melians, 11. Conduct Thessa- 
lians against Phoceans, at the 
path at Thermopylae, 18. 

Melis, 11. Situation of, 11. Xerx- 
es encamps at, 12. Trachinia 
part of, 17, note. 

Melitus, a poet, originates charges 
against Socrates, 31. Joined 
by Lycon and Anytus, 31. 

Mellingen, 96. 

Mendoza, Don Barnardino de, on 
the conquest of England, 323. 
Dismay of, 324. 



400 



INDEX. 



MennetoU, mission of, 177, 178. 

Mesembria, surrender of, 113. 

Mesnil, Chevalier de, 175. Re- 
pels Turks, 199. 

Meuse, dikes of the, opened, 292. 

Milan, demanded and obtained by 
Charles V., 234, 235. 

Milanese, appealed to, by Charles 
of Bourbon, 237. 

Miltiades, at the battle of Mara- 
thon, 10. 

Mina, value of the, 33. 

Minerva, acknowledgements to, by 
Scipio, 62. 

Minerva, Cardinal della, treatment 
of, 256. 

Minos, Attica delivered from, 34. 

Mladonowiz, Petras de, facts from, 
respecting Huss, 99. 

Morsburg, Lords of Lichtenstein, 
of, killed, 94. 

Mohammed II., Constantinople 
threatened by, 112. Besieges 
Constantinople, 113. The great 
cannon of, 119. His interest in 
the action between the Turkish 
and Christian fleet, 122. Pun- 
ishes the captain bashaw, 123. 
Aided by the ambassador of 
Hungary, 123. Meditates re- 
treat, 123. Influenced by the 
grand vizier 123. Urged to a 
double attack, 124. Transports 
the fleet by land, 124. Builds a 
mole and plants a cannon, 125. 
Avarice of, 126. Proposition 
by, to his enemies, 126. Final 
assault by, 126, 128. Double 
pay and rewards offered by, 
127, 135. In the final assault, 
129. Treatment of Greeks by, 
134, 138. Enters the city in 
triumph, 136. Enters St. So- 
phia, 136 ; protects it and con- 
verts it into a mosque, 137 ; 
performs the yiamaz of prayer 
and thanksgiving in it, 137. 
Goes to the palace, 137. His 
regard for, and treatment of, 
Constantine, 137 ; of Lucas 
Notaras, 137. Clemency and 



cruelty of, 188. Returns to 
Adrianople, 138. Establishes 
himself at Constantinople, 138. 
His palace or seraglio, 139. 
Aids in the election and inves- 
titure of the Patriarch, 139. 
Conquest of Constantinople and 
Otranto by, 160. Terror of the 
name of, 161. Could not con- 
quer the Knights of Rhodes, 
161. Inscription on the tomb 
of, 161. Grandfather of Soli- 
man II., 190. Treatment of Zi- 
zim, son of, 231, note. See 
Constantine, Constantinople, 
Greeks, and Turks. 

Monaco, vessel lost near, 214. 

Moncey, French Marshal, appears 
before Zaragoza, 333. 

Money, Impeachment- of the Scip- 
ios for embezzling, 60. 

Monilio, Hieronymo, represen- 
tations to the Rhodians by, 
219. 

Mons Janiculus, 247, note. 

Montfaucon of Mumpelgard, 90. 

Moos, Henry of, 92. 

Morea, 121. 

Morgarten, 92. 

Morgut, Gregory de, 176. Suc- 
cors the bastion of England, 
209. 

Morsath, 86. 

Mortier, Marshal, appears before 
Zaragoza, 333. 

Motta, Marquis della, 257. 

Miiller, Gottfried, 95. 

Miiller, John von, his account of 
the battle of Sempach, 89. His 
History of the Swiss Confeder- 
acy, 89. 

Miillinen, Knight Albert of, 94. 

Mummius, Lucius and Q,uintus, 
on an order respecting Scipio, 
65, 66. 

Mumpelgard, Montfaucon of, 90. 

Mumpelgard, Richard of, 95. 

Muskets, at the siege of Constan- 
tinople, 118. 

Mustapha, 188. Fights at the 
bastion of England, 195. Aa- 



INDEX. 



401 



sault on the bastion of England 
by, 197. Unsuccessful, 198. 
Proposes a general assault, 199, 
200. Fate of, 205. 
Mycenae, soldiers from, at Ther- 
mopylae, 12. 

N. 

Nabis, Lacedaemon left to, 72. 

Nasvius, Marcus, accusation of 
Scipio by, 68. Plebeian tri- 
bune, 68. 

Napier, Colonel, 327. In the 
Peninsular War, 327. 

Naples, demanded by Francis I., 
234. 

Napoleon, reply of Louis XVIII. 
to the proposition of, 235. First 
ancestor of, in Corsica, 237, 
note. 

Nasica, Publius Cornelius, mar- 
ries a daughter of Scipio, 69. 
Appeals to the tribunes, 70. 
Speech by, 70. 

Nassau, Adolphus of, 74. 

Navarre, demanded by Francis 
I., 234. 

Netherlands, sieges of Leyden 
and Ostend, in the war of, for 
independence, 287. Consid- 
erations on the war in, 287. 
Dikes in, opened upon the 
Spaniards, 291, 292. Rebel 
against Philip 11., 308. Aided 
by Elizabeth, 308. See Hol- 
landers. 

Newport, Thomas de, 214. 

Nicholas V., Pope, on the ruin of 
Constantinople, 112. Name 
of, commemorated in St. So- 
phia's, 116. 

Nizzaro reenforces Rhodes, 180. 

Nobles killed at Sempach, 96. 

Northumberland, Earl of, 321. 

Notaras, Lucas, treatment of, and 
of his wife, by Mohammed IL, 
137. 

Notre Dame de la Victoire, de- 
molished, 215. 

Nneres, Chevalier de, 172. 

Nuremberg, Burgrave of, 101. 
34* 



O. 

Oberkirch, Hanns of, 94. 

Oberkirch, John of, 90. 

Ocean, see Tides. 

Ocbsenstein, John of, 90, 95. 

Oecumenic, 100. 

GEtean mountains, 18. 

Ogli, Baltha, Turkish AdmirJ, 
facts respecting, 123. 

Oil, used to prevent the buriAmg 
of cannon, 119. Boiling, 197, 
201. 

Olympiads, 9, note. 

Olympic games, 9. Hero-dotus 
reads portions of his history at 
the, 9. Recurrence of the, 
before the battle of Thermo- 
pylae, 14. 

Omedes, John d', shot in the eye, 
190. 

Onetes,traitor at Thermopylae, 17. 

Onochonus, the river, insufficient 
for Xerxes' army, 11. 

Oppenheim, 145. 

Opuntian Locrians, aid of, solicit- 
ed, to oppose Xerxes at Ther- 
mopylae, 12. Oppose a retreat. 
14. 

Orange, Philibert of, 248. 

Orange, see William. 

Oratory, as taught by the Soph- 
ists, 31. 

Orchomenus, soldiers from, at 
Thermopylae, 12. 

Order of the Knights of Malta, 
see Hospitallers. 

Orleans, Duke of, 279. 

Orsiphantus, sons of, distinguish- 
ed at Thermopylae, 22. 

Orvieto, arrival of the Pope at, 
268, 269. 

Ostend, Sieges of Leyden and, 
287, 296. Duration and un- 
certainty of the siege of, 296 
Description of, 297. Surround- 
ed, 298. Sir Francis Vere gov- 
ernor of, 298. Siege of, com- 
mitted to John di Rivas, 299. 
Succors received in, 300. Mar- 
quis Spinola takes command of 
the siege of, 301. Measures 



402 



INDEX. 



for taking, by force, 302. Ap- 
prehensions for, 304. Consult- 
ation for relieving, 304. Sur- 
render of, 305. Numbers lost 
there, 306. Visit to, by the 
Archduke and Infanta, 306. 
Condition of, 306. See Bre- 
dene, St. Alberto, aiid Spinola. 

Otho of Paris, 94. 

Othomari, 83. 

Otranto, conquered, 160. 

Ottenburg, Ulrich of, 93. 

Otto of Hochberg, Margrave, 94. 

Ouazon, William, 175. 

Our Lady of the Pillar, church 
of, 339. 

OviuSjOfilius Calavius son of, 50. 

Oxford, Earl of, 321. 

P. 

Paetus, Publius tEHus, nominated 

master of horse at Rome, 51. 
Palseologus, Basha, attack on 

Rhodes by, 189, 190. 
Palseologus, John, on a union of 

the Greeks and Latins, 115. 
Palseologus, see Constantino. 
Palafox, General of the Zarago- 

zans, 329. Confides in Suss, 

329. Removal of the dead by, 

330. Aid of, demands terms 
of surrender, 338. Sick, 339. 
See Zaragoza. 

Palafox, Don Francisco, 329. 

Palestine, 123. 

Palos, in Spain, 158. 

Panin, minister of Catharine II., 
paid by Frederic II., 244, note. 

Pantites, survivor at Thermopylae, 
fate of, 23. 

Pappenheim, Ulrich von. Marshal 
of the German empire, 145, 
146. 

Papus, Marcus ^Emilus, appoint- 
ed dictator at Rome, 51. 

Parambolin, 181. 

Paris, Otho of, 94. 

Parker, Archbishop, patron of 
John Stowe, death of, 311. 

Parma, Duke of, 313. The Ar- 
mada not to communicate with. 



314. Commands in Flanders, 
314. Preparationsof the, early, 
317. Blockaded, 319. Troops 
assembled by, in Flanders, 319. 
To disembark near London, 
319. Concert between the Ar- 
mada and the, 323, 324. 

Passau, 106. 

Path, see Anopse. 

Paul v.. Pope, 287. 

Pausanias carries the bones of 
Leonidas to Sparta, 21, note. 

Pavia, siege of, 235. 

Peloponnesus, number of troops 
from, at Thermopylae, 12. 
Troops from, think of a retreat, 
14. 

Peninsular War, 327. 

Perez, Alphonso, Duke of Medina 
Sidonia, chief general in the 
Spanish Armada, . 316. To 
steer to Flanders, 319. Re- 
turn of, to Spain, 325. See 
Armada. 

Peri, or Pyrrhus, Basha, treat- 
ment of Jaxi by, 178. Counsel 
of, as to an attack on Rhodes, 
182. Asks the presence of 
Soliman, 183. Influence of, 
over Soliman, 185. Intercedes 
for the troops, 185, 186. Vig- 
ilance and bravery of, at the 
bastion of Italy, 196 ; at an- 
other bastion, 197. Treatment 
of, by the Sultan, 205. At- 
tacks the Italian platform, 217. 
Representations by, to calm 
the Sultan, 218. Exhorts the 
Rhodians to surrender, 218. 
See Turks. 

Pericles, Herodotus and Phidias 
contemporary with, 9. 

Perrucey, Robert, Judge of 
Rhodes, deputy to Soliman II., 
223. Returns, 224. 

Persia, 10. Soliman reenforced 
from, 228. 

Persians, repeatedly repulsed at 
Thermopylae, 16. Illustrious, 
killed, 21. See Leonidas, Mo- 
des, ThermopylEB, and Xerxes. 



INDEX. 



403 



Peter, Doctor, the King's chief 
secretary, 275. 

Peter of Aarberg, 94. 

Peterrnann ofGundoldingen, Avo- 
yer of Lucerne, wounded, 92. 
Last words of, 95. 

Petilii, prosecute Scipio, 60. 
Gracchus on the, 64. Re- 
proached by the senate, 64. 
Supposed to be instigated by 
Cato, 65. Propose and advo- 
cate an order respecting Scipio, 
after his death, 65, 66. 

Peutinger, Doctor, 154. 

Phanagoras, Onetes son of, 17. 

Phenar, gate of, forced, 131. 

Phidias, contemporaries with, 9. 

Philelphus, on the number of 
Turks before Constantinople, 
113. Latin ode to Mohammed 
by, 134. 

Phiierme, Mount, 176. Soliman 
n. builds a house on, 206. 

Phiiibert of Orange, 248. 

Philip, Macedonia left to, 72. 

Philip of Burgundy, 173. 

Philip of Feilitsch, 145. 

Philip, Landgrave of Hessia, 151, 
152. 

Philip de Villiers, see Adam. 

Philip IL, character of, 308. Re- 
bellion of Netherlands against, 
308. Resolves to subdue Eliz- 
abeth, 309. On the destruction 
of his Armada, 311. Three 
years preparing, 316. See Ar- 
mada. 

Philips, Peter, killed, 205. 

Philo, Q,uintus Publilius, elected 
consul, 52. 

Phlius, soldiers from, at Ther- 
mopylse, 12. 

Pfaoceans, solicited for the battle 
at Thermopylae, 13. Oppose a 
retreat, 14. Defend the pass, 
16, 18. Thessalians led against 
the, 18. Discovery of the Per- 
sians by the, 18. Retreat be- 
fore Hy dames and Ephialtes, 
19. 
Phoenix, the river, 12. Fourteen 



furlongs from Thermopylae, 12. 

Phranza, on the Turkish forces 
before Constantinople, 114. On 
the fighting men in the city, 
114. Fact from, 118. On the 
loss of Turks, 122. On the 
meeting of the Greeks before 
the final assault, 128. Enslav- 
ed and liberated, 134. Ran- 
soms his wife, 134. Fate of 
his children, 134. 

Phrataguna, sons of, killed at 
Thermopylee, 21. 

Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, 158. 

Pink, a ship, 177. 

Pinnace, 326. 

Pisa, Archbishop of, a hostage, 
265. 

Pistoja, Bishop of, a hostage, 265. 

Platffiae, victory at, 10. Bravery 
of Aristodemus at, 23. The- 
bans killed at, 24. Socrates at 
the battle of, 29. 

Plato, The Death of Socrates by, 
28, 30. Disciple of Socrates, 28. 
Master of Aristotle, 28. Dia- 
logues of, commended, 30. 
Cicero on the Apology of, 30. 
Desires to be surety for Soc- 
rates, 33. Purport of the Dia- 
logues of, 35. His feelings at 
the taking of poison by Socra- 
tes, 38. Taylor's Translation 
of, 39, note. See Socrates. 

Pleminius, tumult raised by, 61. 

Plethron, one hundred feet, 12, 
note. 

Poggio, on Jerome of Prague, 110. 

Poison, conversations of Socrates 
respecting the, 37-39. Brought 
to Socrates and taken, 38. Op- 
eration of the, 39. 

Politics, conduct of Socrates as 
to, 29. 

Polydorus, 13. 

Pommerols, Gabriel de, commis- 
sioner at Rhodes, 165. Lieu- 
tenant-general, 165, 176. 
Pompey, see Colonna. 
Pontius, Caius, speech by, after 
the unsuccessful mission to the 



404 



INDEX. 



Romans* 41. Encamps near 
Caudium, 42. Sends soldiers, 
disguised, to Calatia, 42. Ru- 
mor spread by, to deceive the 
Romans, 42. His reply to a 
proposition from the ensnared 
Romans, 45. Visit to, by the 
Roman consuls, 47 ; their con- 
versation, 47. Refusal of, to 
accept the surrender of the con- 
suls and tribunes from Rome, 
57. Dismisses the Romans, 58. 
See Samnites. 

Pontius, Herennius, father of 
Caius Pontius, 41. Consulted 
as to the disposition of the Ro- 
man army, 44. Advice by, 44. 
Carried to camp, and gives rea- 
sons, 45. Plans of, not approv- 
ed, 45. Carried home, 45. 

Pope, enmity to the, at Constan- 
tinople, 118. Prohibits Lu- 
ther's writings, and excommu- 
nicates him, 141. Includes Lu- 
ther and his adherents in a bull, 
142. Decline of the power of 
the, 233. Appoints a legatine 
court, 273. Assent of the, re- 
quired by Campeggio, 285, 
286. See Adrian VL, Alex- 
ander VL, Clement VIL, Hen- 
ry VHL, John XXHL, Julius 
H., Leo X., Martin V., Nich- 
olas v., Paul v., Sixtus V., 
Sylvius, and Urban VHL 

Porsena, hostages given to, 58. 

Port, Antony of, 92. 

Porta Flarainia, at Rome, 245, 
note. 

Porta di Populo, 245. 

Porta Settimiana, 247. 

Portugal joins in the Armada, 316. 

Portuguese vessel, captured in 
1592, 317. 

Postumius, Spurius, Consul of 
Rome, 41. Speeches by, on 
the Caudine peace, 52, 53. 
Surrender of, to the Samnites, 
52, 56, 57. Approbation of, 
56. Bound, 57. Strikes the 
herald, 57, 58. Pontius re- 
monstrates with, 57. 



Potemkin, 244, note. 

Prague, Jerome of, 110. 

Prejan de Bidoux, sustains Buck, 
198. Wounded, 199. Succors 
the post of Spain, 217. Coun- 
sel of, to the Grand-master, 
221. Meets Turks bringing a 
letter, 223. 

Priesthood, agricultural, 40. 

Priory, 169, 7iote. 

Prisoners, ancient ideas as to, 
135. 

Propontis, troops along the, 113. 
Turkish fleet on the, 114. 

Protestants, fought with Catholics, 
240,. note. Contest between 
Roman Catholics and, 308. 

Provence, Knights of the Lan- 
guage of, 160. Bastion of, at 
Rhodes, 175. Attacks on the 
post of, 209. 

Prytaneum, Socrates refers to a 
public maintenance in the, 33. 

Public maintenance, Socrates de- 
mands, 33. 

Public money. Impeachment of 
the Scipios for embezzling, 60. 

Publilius, see Philo. 

Pucci, Cardinal, wounded and 
taken into the castle of St. An- 
gelo, 244. 

Punishment, according to Atheni- 
an courts, 33, Socrates on his 
own, 33. 

Purpureo, Lucius Furius, on an 
order in the senate, respecting 
Scipio, 66. 

Pyla?, Straits of Thermopylae call- 
ed, 12. 

Pylaea, council at, set a price on 
the head of Ephialtes, 17. 

Pylagorae set a price on the l.ead 
of Ephialtes, 17. 

Pyrrhus, see Peri. 

a. 

Quintus, see Mummius. 

R. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 321. 
Randegh, Hanns of, 96. 
Rathsamhausen, 95. 



INDEX. 



405 



Recaldo, Don Martino, of Can- 
tabria, Vice-Admiral in the 
Spanish Armada, 316. 

Reformation, state of the, at the 
time of Luther's appearance at 
Worms, 141. In the beginning 
of the sixteenth century, 233. 
In the Catholic Church, 308. 

Reichard, Archbishop of Treves, 
attempts to procure recantation 
from Luther, 146, 154. 

Reinhard of Wehiligen, 90. 

Renzo da Ceri, Captain, 238, note. 
Cry and flight of, 242, 245. 

Revival of letters, 112. 

Rheinach, Lords of, killed, 96. 
Hemmann, 96. 

Rhine, Huss's ashes thrown into 
the, 109. Branch of the, at 
Leyden, 289. 

Rhodes, Vertot's account of the 
Siege and Surrender of, 158. 
Conquered by Knights Hospi- 
tallers, 160. Turkish arma- 
ment against, 161. Commis- 
sioners for supplying with pro- 
visions, 164-166. Fortifications 
of, improved, 169. Troops for 
the defence of, 172. Employ- 
ment of the slaves of, 172. 
Chains across the port of, 172. 
Topographical account of, 173. 
Colossus of, 173. Bulwarks of, 
committed to five old Knights, 
175. Two nations in, 179, 
Turkish female conspirators in, 
184. Sally from, under Bar- 
tholomew and Scaramose, 190. 
Want of gunpowder at, 191. 
Mode of the siege thus far, 193. 
Treachery of a Jew in, 199. 
General assault on, 200. Plun- 
der of, promised to the Turks, 
200. Bravery of women in, 202. 
New method of siege against, 
206. Treason in, 209. Gen- 
eral interest in, 213. Knights 
called to aid, 214. Turkish 
communications to the inhabi- 
tants of, 219. Internal divisions 
in, 220. Advice of a council 



in, 221. Negotiations at, 223. 
Tumult in, 224. Articles for 
the surrender of, 227. Treaty 
of, violated, 230. Final em- 
barcation at, 231. See Adam, 
Amaral, Knights, and Turks. 

Ricard, Raimond de, 175. 

Richard of Mumpelgard, 95. 

Richard II., French fleet against, 
320. 

Ridley, Doctor, 275. Appeals to 
Wolsey, respecting Catharine, 
282. 

Ridolfi, Lawrence, a hostage, 265. 

Riga, Bishop of, conducts Huss 
from prison to the cathedral, 
100. 

Rings, gold and iron, 51, 7iote. 

Rivas, John di, Canipmaster, left 
in command of the siege of 
Ostend, 299. Diligence of, 299, 
300, 

Robert, Earl of Leicester, Lord 
General, 313. 

Rochester, Bishop of, 275. See 
Fisher. 

Rodomont, 247, note. See Gon- 
zagua. 

Roger, Raimond, 175. 

Roman Army, The Surrender of 
the, at the Defile, near Caudi- 
um, 40. Time of the surrender 
of the, 41. Marches to relieve 
Lucernia, in Apulia, 42. En- 
snared in the defile near Cau- 
dium, 43. Consultation as to 
disposing of the, 44,45. Fruit- 
less efforts of the, to escape, 
45. Proposition from the, to 
the Samnites, 45. Terms for 
the capitulation of the, 45. 
Effect of Pontius's reply, 46. 
Speech of Lucius Lentulus, 
lieutenant-general of the, 46. 
Hostages given by the, 48. 
Consuls reproached by the, 48. 
Particulars of the surrender of 
the, 48. Passes under the 
yoke, 49. See Romans. 

Roman Catholics, see Protestants. 

Roman Consuls, Calvinus and 



406 



INDEX. 



Postumius, 41. Speech of 
Lentulus to, at the Caudine 
Forks, 46. Visit Pontius, 47. 
Excitement at the return of the, 
to the army, 48. Treatment of 
the, at the surrender, 48, 49. 
Kindness shown to the, by the 
Capuans, 49. Their mortifica- 
tion and grief, 49, 50. Return 
to Rome and shut themselves 
up, 51. Dictator and master 
of the horse nominated by the, 

51. Philo and Cursor elected, 

52. See Postumius. 

Roman Senate, consideration of 
the Caudine peace by the, 52. 
Speech of Postumius before the, 
52. Thanks by, to Tiberius 
Gracchus, 64. Reproaches the 
Petilii, 64. Order proposed in, 
after the death of Scipio, 65. 
Inquiry respecting Scipio Afri- 
can us ordered by the, 66. 

Roman Senators, the latus clavus 
worn by, 51, note. 

Roman Tribunes, surrender of, to 
the Samnites, 53, 54, 56. Ac- 
cusation against Scipio by the 
plebeian, 61. Deserted by the 
people to accompany Scipio, 62. 
Remarks by the, on the excuse 
offered by Scipio, 63. See 
Gracchus, 

Romania, 129. 

Romans, aid the Capuans and de- 
feat the Samnites, 40. War 
renewed between the Samnites 
and, 40. Speech of Caius Pon- 
tius, the Sabine commander, in 
regard to the, 41. The Cau- 
dine peace between the Sam- 
nites and the, 47. In the six- 
teenth century, 251, note. See 
Roman, and Rome. 

Rome, on ransoming, from the 
Gauls, 46. On the defence of, 
47. Subdued by Gauls, 50. 
Affliction at, upon hearing of 
the surrender of the army to 
the Samnites, 51. Arrival of 
the troops at, 51. The consuls 



at, 51. Dictator and master 
of horse, appointed at, 51. In- 
terregnum at, 52. Office of in- 
terrex at, held by Maximus and 
by Corvus, 52. Ingratitude of, 
towards Scipio Africanus, 60, 
65. Bonaparte's account of the 
sackof, in 1527,233,236. As- 
saulted, 236. Horrible scenes 
in, after its capture, 236. Pen- 
etrated, 238, 241. Confusion 
in, 244. Slaughter at, 246. 
General entry into, 248. Des- 
perate resignation in, 248. Bar- 
barities in, 249, 250. Traits 
of Roman firmness in, 251. 
Measures for procuring riches 
in, 252. Tortures in, 255. 
Duration of the tyranny in, 
260. Famine and pestilence 
iu, 260, 267. Escape of the 
Pope from, 268. Troops leave, 
269. See Clement VII., Ger- 
mans, St. Angelo, and Span- 
iards. 

Romulus, agricultural priesthood 
by, 40, note. 

Rotenburg, bailiffs of Lucerne of, 

75. Wrested from Grimm, 89 
Troops from, at Sempach, 92. 

Rotondo, Monte, 245. 
Rotterdam, boats at, for relieving 

Leyden, 292. 
Rotzberg, King's bailiff in the 

castle of, attempts an intrigue, 

76. Castle of, taken, 86. 
Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor 

of Germany, 74. 
Rudolph the Harrass, 94. 
Rudolph, Count of Sulz, 90. 
Riiss, crossed, 89. 
Rutlin, 82. 



Sack of Rome, in 1527, 233, 237. 

Salamis, victory at, 10. 

St. Alberto, fort, near Ostend, 
297. Bank run out from, 298. 
Battery near, 298. Platform 
near, 299. Attack near, 302. 

St. Ambrose, gate of, 175. 



INDEX. 



407 



St. Angelo, castle of, at Rhodes, 
173. 

St. Angelo, castle of, at Rome, 
239, and 239, note. Retreat 
to, by Renzo, 243. The Pope 
carried to, 243. Thronged, 
243. Account of, 243, note. 
Cardinals carried into, 244. 
Attacked, 248. Guarded, 254. 
Regular blockade of. 255. Fam- 
ine in, 263. Clement's escape 
from the, 268. 

St. Asaph, Bishop of, 275. 

St. Aubin, Joachim de, 175. 

St. Augustin, at Zaragoza, ef- 
forts against, 336. Fortifica- 
tions near, abandoned, 338. 

St. Camelle, Anastasius de, 177. 

St. Catharine, gate of, 172. 

St. Elme, or St. Erme, castle of, 
174. 

St. Engracia, convent of, at Zara- 
goza, 328. Efforts directed 
against, 336. Progress at, 337. 

St. George, gate of, 175. 

St. Jacobi, day of, referred to, 
80. 

St. Jaille, Didier Tholon of, 172. 
Commander of, 208. 

St. John, Brothers of, 159. Sec 
Hospitallers. 

St. John's church, at Rhodes, 
174, 212. Steeple, 187 ; de- 
molished, 188. 

St. Lazar, convent of, carried by 
assault, 338. 

St. Leu, Count, 237. 

St. Marie de la Victoire, 175, 181. 

St. Mark's church, 176. 

St. Mary's church, at Rhodes, 
223. 

St. Michael, statue of, 243, note. 

St. Monica, at Zaragoza, efforts 
against, 336. 

St. Nicholas, tower of, 172, 173. 
Bastion adjoining, 173. Guyot 
de Castelane to defend the, 
176. Attacked, 188, 189. 
Chancellor d'Amaral carried 
to and tried, 210. 

St. Pancratius, army enters 



through the gate of, at Rome, 
246. Wall from, 247. 

St. Pantaleon, church of, demol 
ished, 215. 

St. Peter, castle of, surrendered, 
227. 

St. Prix, Claude de, 176. 

St. Romanus, gate of, at Constan- 
tinople, 113. Tower of, over- 
turned, 120 ; restored, 121. 
Four towers near, levelled, 
125. Passed through, in tri- 
umph, 136. 

St. Sophia cathedral, united com- 
munion of Greeks and Latins 
in, 116. Deserted, as being 
polluted, 117. Sacrament re- 
ceived in, by Constantino and 
others, 128. Thronged after 
the subjection of Constantino- 
ple, 132. Treatment of persons 
found in, 133. Despoiled, 135. 
Transformed into a mosque, 
137. Prayer proclaimed from 
the turret of, 137. Endowed 
and beautified, 139. See Mo- 
hammed IL 

Salaturn, castle built at, 79. 

Salviati, James, a hostage, 265. 

Samnites, frugal, industrious, and 
brave, 40. Agricultural, 40. 
Agricultural priesthood among 
the, 40. League among the, 
40. Capua attacked by, 40. 
Romans aid the Capuans, and 
subdue the, 40. War renew- 
ed between the Romans and 
the, 40. Roman legions made 
prisoners by the, 40. Caius 
Pontius commander of the, 41. 
Encamp near Caudium, 42. 
Reported to be besieging Lu- 
ceria, 42. Stratagem practis- 
ed by the, on the Romans, 43. 
Consultation of Herennius Pon- 
tius by the, respecting the fate 
of the Romans, 44. Herenni- 
us brought to the camp of the, 
45. Proposition to the, by the 
Romans, and the reply, 45. 
Discussion and speeches in the 



408 



INDEX. 



Roman senate respecting the 
peace with the, 52. Consuls, 
quaestors, and tribunes surren- 
dered to the, 56, 57. Warlike 
movements against the, 56. 
See Pontius. 

Sainnium, account of, 40. 

Satnos, 9. 

Sampson, Dr., Bishop of Chiches- 
ter, 275. 

Sangiac, or Sanjak, 129, note. 

Sanguessa, 333. 

Santa Croce, lady and daughter 
of the family of, ransomed, 262. 

Saragossa, see Zaragoza. 

Sardinia, vessel stranded on, 214. 

Sarnen, castle of, 83. Taken, 
87. 

Scaramose, Benedict, sally under, 
at Rhodes, 190. 

Schaffhausen, banner of, 96. 

Schlick, Caspar, effect on, of the 
sentence against Huss, 106. 
Facts respecting, 106. 

Schonan, Lord of, 94. 

Schurf, D., Luther's advocate and 
protector at Worms, 147. 

Schwytz, conversation of Gessler 
in, 80, 81. Opposition in, to 
oppression, 83. Success in, 88. 
Leopold found by a soldier of, 
94. See Uri. 

Scipio Africanus, Publius Corne- 
lius, prosecuted, 60, 64, 68. 
Topics of conversation till the 
day for the trial of, 61. Con- 
sul and censor, 61, 65. His 
escorts to the forum, 61, 62. 
Character of his defence at his 
trial, 61. Charges brought 
against, 61. Assailed with envy, 
61. Second day of the trial 
of, the anniversary of a victo- 
ry, 62. Goes to return thanks 
to the deities, 62. Accom- 
panied by the whole assem- 
bly, 62. His triumph over Sy- 
phax and the Carthaginians, 62. 
Retires to Liternum, 62. Does 
not appear on the day of ad- 
jouniment, 63. Excuse offer- 



ed for, by Lucius Scipio, 63. 
Enmity between Sempronius 
Gracchus and, 63. Remarks 
of Gracchus respecting, 63. 
Deeds of, enumerated by Sem- 
pronius Gracchus, 64. Last 
days of, at Liternum, 64, 68. 
Dying commands of, 65. Re- 
marks on, 65. Movements by 
Cato, after the death of, 65. 
Order proposed respecting, after 
his death, 65. Culeo to hold 
inquiry respecting, 66. Culeo's 
feelings towards, 66, 67. Said 
to have died at Rome, 66, 68. 
Memorials of, 68. Speech at- 
tributed to, 68. In Etriiria, at 
the impeachment of his brother, 

68. Hastens to Rome, 68. In- 
temperate violence of, 69. Facts 
by Gracchus respecting, 69. 
Husbands of the daughters of, 

69. Emilia wife of, 70. Facts 
respecting, mentioned by Nasi- 
ca, 71. Not present at the vic- 
tory over Antiochus, 71. 

Scipio Asiaticus, Lucius Corne- 
lius, excuses the absence of 
Scipio Africanus, on the day 
for his trial, 63. Appeals to 
the tribunes of commons, 63. 
Participator in his brother's ex- 
ploits, 64. Opposes an order 
respecting his brother, after his 
death, 66. Arraigned before 
the pretor Culeo, 67. Con- 
victed, 67, 73. Statue of, 68. 
Facts respecting, mentioned in 
Nasica's speech, 71. War with 
Antiochus assigned to, 71. 
Conqueror of Antiochus, 71. 
Treasures said to be conveyed 
to the house of, 72. Discharg- 
ed, 73. Questors to take pos- 
session of his property, 73 
Contribution for, 73. 

Scipio, Cneius, facts as to, 70. 

Scipio, Publius, facts as to, 70. 

Scipios, Impeachment ef the, 60. 
Their influence in the senate, 
66. Contradictory accoimts re- 



INDEX. 



409 



specting the, 68. Monument' 
and statues of the, 68. 

Sea, see Tides. 

Selim , infringes on the privileges 
of the Greeks, 140. Example 
of, 184. 

^elybria, siege of, 113. 

Semiramis, fleet of, 320. 

Sempach, The Battle at, in 1386, 
89. March of the Duke of 
Austria to, 89. Situation of, 
89. People of, taunted by the 
enemy, 90. Nobles killed at, 
96. See Leopold, and Swiss. 

Senate, see Roman. 

Sentence of death, passed on Soc- 
rates, 33. Time for executing, 
34. 

Septimian gate, at Rome, 247. 

Servia, Turks aided from, 181. 

Servius Sulpicius, 65. 

Seymour, Henry, Lord, command- 
er of an English squadron, 314. 
Ships under, 326. 

Sforza, Francis, reestablished in 
the dukedom of Milan, 235. 

Shakspeare, William, character of 
Wolsey by, 271. Indebted to 
Cavendish, 271. 

Shepherds, sodiers sent to Cala- 
tia, in the hjibit of, 42. 

Sicily, 121. 

Sickingen, Frrncis von, 144. 

Sieges of Leyden and Ostend, in 
the War of the Netherlands for 
Independence, 287, 296. Of 
Zaragoza, in 1808, 327. Re- 
marks on, 327. See Leyden, 
Ostend, and Zaragoza. 

Siegfried, of Erloch, 95. 

Sienna, Cardinal of, treatment of, 
256. 

Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, 
violates his promise of a safe- 
conduct to Huss, 100. Re- 
minded of his promise, 100, 
104. At the final examination 
of Huss, 101. Urged to exe- 
cute Huss, 101 ; delivers mm 
for execution. 106. 

Sigrist of Tiessebach, 95. 
S5 



Sillinen, Stephen of, 92. 
Simonides, inscription by, on the 

tomb of Megistias, 23. 
Singlifico, Peter, sent as deputy 

to the Grand Signior, 226. 
Siponte, Archbishop of, a hostage, 

265. 
Sixtine bridge, at Rome, 242, 247, 

248, 257. 
Sixtus v.. Pope, hatred of Queen 

Elizabeth by, 309. 
Slaves, employment of the Rho- 

dian, 172. Cut to pieces, 192. 
Sluys, besieged and captured, 

305. Spinola's attempt to re- 
lieve, 305. 
Socrates, The Death of, by Plato, 

28, 30. The master of Plato, 

28. Character of his philoso- 
phy and instructions, 28, 32. 
" The great lawyer of antiqui- 
ty," 28. His mode of reason- 
ing, 28. Unpopularity and per- 
secution of, 29. Conduct of, 
as to politics, 29 ; at the battle 
of PlataeoB, 29 ; as to voting, 

29. Religious charges brought 
against, 29, 31. Remarks on 
him in connexion with his death, 
29. His regard for the laws, 29, 
31, 35. His belief in God and 
immortality, 30. Ridiculed 
by Aristophanes, 30, note, 32. 
Originator of the charge against, 
31. Enemies to, 31. Difficul- 
ty of finding charges against, 

31. Conduct of, as a soldier, 
31 ; as a public officer, 31 ; in 
relation to generals at the bat- 
tle of Arginusae, 31. The ac- 
cusation against, 32 ; its fal- 
sity, 32. Neutral conduct of, 

32. Declines the aid of Ly- 
sias, 32. Character of his judg- 
es, 32. Conduct of, at his trial, 

33. 34. His estimate as to his 
punishment, 33. Remarks by, 
on public maintenance, death, 
imprisonment, exile, and fine, 
33. Disciples of, desire to be- 
come his sureties, 33. Sen- 

G. E. 



410 



INDEX 



tence of death passed on, 33. 
Speech by, to his judges, 33. 
Delay in the death of, 34. Con- 
duct and conversations of, wliile 
under sentence of death, 35. 
Refuses to escape, 35. Final 
interview, with his wife and 
child, 35 ; with his friends, 35. 
Argues the doctrine of immor- 
tality, 35, 36. His conversa- 
tion with Criton, respecting his 
children, 35 ; his burial, 35, 
36. Bathes, and gives direc- 
tions to his sons, 36. Interview 
between the executioner and, 
36, 37. Conversation by, re- 
specting the poison, 37. His 
remarks to, and respecting, the 
executioner, 37. Poison brought 
to, and taken, 38. Rebukes 
his friends for weakness, 38. 
Operation of the poison on, 39. 
Last words and death of, 39. 

Soldiers, after the feudal militia, 
233. 

Soliman II., armament fitted out 
by, against Rhodes, in 1522, 
161. Declaration of war by, 
178. Puts himself at the head 
of the army, 184. His treat- 
ment of his rebellious army, 
185. Holds a council of war, 

199. Orders a general assault, 

200. Promises plunder, 200. 
Personal encouragement by, 

201. Orders a retreat of Jan- 
izaries, 204. Treatment of 
Mustapha and Peri by, 205. 
Continues the siege, 206. Or- 
ders an assault by Achmet, 213. 
Wrath of, at the retreat of the 
Turks, 218. Representations 
to, by Peri, 218. Negotiations 
with, 223. Deputies sent to, 
223,225,226. Declines a truce, 
and commences firing, 225. 
Negotiation with, renewed, 226. 
Treaty signed in the name of, 
228. Reception of the Grand- 
master by, 229. Goes to the 
Grand-master's palace, 230. 



Prepares to depart, 231. The 
Grand-master takes leave of, 
232. See Adam, Amaral, Peri, 
Rhodes, and Turks. 

Sollier, Ernard, 175. 

Sophists, character of their teach- 
ings, 28, 31. Unpopularity of 
Socrates with the, 29, 31.* 
Teaching of oratory by the, 31, 

Southey, Robert, 327. 

Spain, war between Netherlands 
and, 287. 

Spain, bastion of, at Rhodes, 175. 
Peril and bravery at the post 
of, 203. Achmet's efforts 
against the bastion of, 206, 216, 
217. The Grand-master de- 
fends, 207. Bastion of, suc- 
cored, 217. Engagement at the 
bastion of, 225, 226. 

Spalatine, Luther writes to, from 
Frankfort, 144. Urge« Luther 
not to go to Worms, 145. Ci- 
ted, 151, 152. 

Spaniards, cruelty of, at Rome, 
237. Addressed by Charles of 
Bourbon, 237. Begin to break 
into the city, 238, 241. Con- 
duct of, after the flight of Ren- 
zo, 245. Deception of the 
Pope by the, 246. Proceed to 
the Porta Settimiana, 247. En- 
ter the city, 248. Cease to 
slay, and are suspected of trea- 
son, 249. Extortion of riches 
by, 253. ■ Respected sacred 
places, 257. More cruel than 
Germans, 257, 258. Inclined 
to peace, 267. Measures for 
routing the, at Leyden, 291. 
Surprised by inundation, 292. 
Perish, 294. Annoyed by sharp 
hooks, 294, 7iote. Invasion of 
England by, threatened, 313. 
See Armada, Leyden, and Zar- 
agoza. 
Spanish Armada, see Armada. 
Sparta, Kings of, 13. Detach- 
ment left to defend, 14. Car- 
nian festival at, 14, note. De- 
maratus, King of, deposed, 15, 



INDEX. 



411 



note. Bones of Leonidas at, 

21, note. Annual funeral ora- 
tions and games at, in commem- 
oration of Leonidas, 21, note. 
Treatment of Aristodcmus at, 
after his return from Thermop- 
ylce, 23 ; of Fantites, 23. Ad- 
vice of Demaratus to Xerxes 
respecting, 24. Relation of 
Cythera to, 25. Advice of 
Achaemenes respecting, 25. 
See Leonidas. 

Spartans, three hundred, at the 
battle of Thermopylae, 12. 
Consultation of the oracle by, 
on the approach of Xerxes, 19. 
Distinguished, at Thermopylae, 

22. Information sent to, by 
Demaratus, respecting Xerxes, 
26. See Leonidas. 

Spears, at Thermopyla3, 16. 

Sperchius, the river, 11. 

Spinola, Marquis, commands at 
the siege of Ostend, 301, 302. 
Measures taken by, 302. Ac- 
tivity of, 304. Attempt by, to 
relieve Sluys, 305. Commend- 
ed by the Archduke and Infan- 
ta, 307. 

Standish, counsel for Catharine, 
275. 

Stanhope, Lord, application by, 
to Vertot, 163, 7iote. 

Slauffach, Wernherr of, conver- 
sation of Gessler the landvogt 
with, 80, 81. His apprehen- 
sions, 81. Advice to, by his 
wife, 81. Goes to Uri, 81. 
Consults Furst, 81. Enters 
into a league, 82. Returns to 
Scwhytz,83. Informed of Gess- 
ler's death, 86. Destroys the 
castle of Lowers, 88. See Furst. 

Stein, 89. 

Stephen of Sillinen, 92. 

Stephens, Dr., 275. 

Stokars, two, killed, 96 

Stones, hurled upon Turks, 197, 
201. 

Stowe, John, 308. Biographical 
notice of, 311. Works by, 311. 



Strada, 289, note, 293, note» 294, 
7iote. 

Stratagem in war, 91. 

Strutthan, see Winkelreid. 

Sturm, Caspar, herald to accom- 
pany Luther to Worms, 144, 
7iote. 

Styria, Gratz in, 107. 

Sulpicius, Servius, City Pi'etor, at 
Rome, 65. Question to the 
senate by, on an inquiry re- 
specting Scipio, 66. 

Sulz, Count of, 90. 

Surrender of the Roman Army, 
at the Defile near Caudium, 40. 

Sursee, 89. Fugitives killed in, 
97. 

Suss, P. Santiago, a priest, activ 
ity of, at Zaragoza, 329. 

Swiss, see Uri. 

Swiss Chronicle, Tschudi's, 74. 

Swiss Confederacy, Miiller's, 89. 

Swiss ConfederateSjBattle at Sem- 
pach between the Austrians and, 
89. Position of, before the bat- 
tle at Sempach, 89, 91. Taunted 
by the enemy, 90. Advance, 
91. Number of the, 92. Arms 
of the, 92. Pray, and charge 
the enemy, 92. Struggle, 92. 
Reenforced and prevail, 93. 
Eminent persons of the, killed, 
95. Grant an armistice, 97. 
Bodies of, buried, 98. Dis- 
persion of the, 98. See Leo- 
pold. 

Swiss Forest Districts, Delivery 
of the, 74. 

Swiss guard repels Spaniards at 
Rome, 238. 

Switzerland, confederacy for the 
restoration of, 82, 83. See Uri. 

Sylvius, on Caspar Schlick, 106. 
Pope, 107. On Huss, 107. 

Syphax, King, Scipio's triumph 
over, 62. Made prisoner, 64. 

Syracuse, charges against Scipio 
at, 61. 

T. 

Tablets, sent to Sparta, 27. 



412 



INDEX. 



Taurus, Mount, 72. 

Taylor's Translation of Plato, 39, 
note. 

Tegeatse, five hundred, at the bat- 
tle of Thermopylae, 12. 

Teleclus, 13. 

Tell, the word, 84, note. 

Tell, William, does no reverence 
to the hat upon the pole, 83. 
Arraigned by Gessler, 83, 84. 
Shoots the apple from his son's 
head, 84. Intended to shoot 
Gessler, 85. Threatened with 
imprisonment, 85. Encounters 
a storm, 85. Escapes, 86. 
Kills Gessler, 86. Flight of, 
to Brumien, 86. Carried to 
Uri, 86. Concealed, 86. No- 
tifies confederates, of Gessler's 
fate, 86. 

Toll's plateau, 85. 

Temple Bar, 274. 

Terentius, see Culeo. 

Terrione, gate, at Rome, 242. 

Thebans, four hundred, at Ther- 
mopylae, 12. Accompany Le- 
onidas, 13. Under the com- 
mand of Leontiades, 13. Sus- 
pected of attachment to the 
Medes, 13. Detained at Ther- 
mopylae by Leonidas, 20. Join 
the Persians, 24. Killed at 
Plataeae, 24. 

Theobald, Zacharaeus, The War 
of the Hussites by, 99. Facts 
respecting, 99. His account of 
the death of Huss, 99, 100. 

Thermopylae, account of the Bat- 
tle of, 9 ; eflTect of it on modern 
civilization, 10 ; time of it, 11. 
Situation of, 12. Greeks en- 
camp at, 12. Number of Gre- 
cian troops at, 12. Greeks at, 
consult about a retreat, 14. 
Horseman sent to, by Xerxes, 
to reconnoiter, 14. Medes and 
Persians at, repeatedly repul- 
sed, 16, 21. Circuit by the Per- 
sians through the mountain 
near, 17-19, 23. Prediction, 
by Megistias, of the destruction 
of Greeks at, 19. Council by 



the Greeks at, 19. Allies re- 
tire from, 19, 20. Resolution 
of Leonidas to remain at, 19. 
Desperate battle between the 
Greeks and Barbarians at, 

20, 21. Persians killed at, 

21. Greeks retreat to a hill, 
21. Lion of stone erected at, 
21. Two epigrams on the sub- 
ject, 21, note. Inscriptions on 
the tomb at, 22. Conduct of 
Eurytus and Aristodemus at, 
23. See Leonidas. 

Theseus, deliverance of Attica by, 
34. Ship of, annually despatch- 
ed to Delos, 34. 

Thespians, seven hundred, at 
Thermopylae, 12. Remain with 
Leonidas at Thermopylae, 20. 
Demophilus leader of the, 20. 
Valor of the, 22. Inscription 
to the, 22. 

Thessalians, conducted against the 
Phoceans at the path Anopce, 
18. Favor the Thebans, 24. 

Thessaly, Xerxes' march through, 
11. 

Thierstein, Count Walleram of, 
94. 

Thirty Years' War, torture in the, 
255, note. 

Tholon of*St. Jaille, Didier, 172. 

Thucydides, influence of Herodo- 
tus on, 9. Historical criticism 
began with, 10. 

Thunau, Frederic of, 145, 150. 

Thuring of Hallwyl, 89. Killed, 
94. 

Thuringia, 157. 

Tides, advantage taken of, at the 
equinoxes, to relieve Leyden, 
291, 293. 

Tiessebach, Sigrist of, 95. 

Tilbury, encampment at, 309, 
314. Elizabeth's speech at, 
309, 315. March towards, 315. 

Time, on reckoning, 241, note. 

Tinteville, Chevalier de, carries 
the standard of the crucifix, 177. 

Toll, meaning of, 84, note. 

Tongue, torture of the, 255, note. 

Torgone, Pompeio, an engineer. 



INDEX. 



413 



wooden castle by, before Os- 
tend, 301. Floats by, 301, 
302. Cart and bridge by, 303. 

Tortures, inflicted, 255. 

Totilas, the Goth, 246. 

Trachinia, 12. Xerxes encamps 
in, 12. Part of Melis, 17, note. 

Trachinian mountains, 18. 

Trachinian rocks, 11. 

Trachis, situation of, 12. Locri- 
ans and Phoceans march to, 13. 

Trastevere, the ward, at Rome, 
244. 

Treaty, see Caudine peace. 

Tregonell, Doctor, 275. 

Tressac, Oliver de, killed, 2j?5. 

Treves, Archbishop of, 146. See 
Reichard. 

Tribunes, see Roman. 

Truchsen, of Waldburgan, Otto, 
95. 

Tschudi, ^gidius, extract from 
The Swiss Chronicle of, on the 
Delivery of the four Swiss For- 
est Districts, 74. Biographical 
notice of, 74. Remarks on his 
Swiss Chronicle, 74. 

Tudela, 333. 

Tulach, Hanns of, 96. 

Turcopoles, 165, 7iote. 

Turkey, in diplomatic connexion 
with the powers of Europe, 162. 

Turkish fleet, before Constantino- 
ple, 114. At the entrance of 
the Bosphorus, 121. Charac- 
ter of the, 122. Battle of the, 
with the Christian squadron, 
122. Transported ten miles 
by land, 124. Sails to Rhodes, 
180, 181. Forces of the, 181. 

Turks, conquerors of the Byzan- 
tine empire. 111. Good con- 
sequences from their barbarity, 
112. Disposition and number 
of the, at Constantinople, 113, 
131. Progress of, against the 
walls, 119. Attempt to fill and 
cross the ditch, 119. Attempt 
mines, 120. Take the city, 
131. Delusive prophecy re- 
specting the, 132. Their ideas 
respecting captives, 135. Mar- 
3,5* 



itime power of the, broken, 
161. Western Europe in dan- 
ger from, 161. Filing towards 
Lycia, before the siege of 
Rhodes, 166. Sail to Rhodes, 
180, 181. Repulsed at Coos, 
180. Forces of the, before 
Rhodes, 181. Land, 182. In- 
vest Rhodes, 182. Unsuccess- 
ful, 182. Discouraged, 183. 
Diversion in favor of, by a 
Turkish woman, 184. Soli- 
man's speech to them, 185. 
Progress of, against the city, 
187. Notice sent to, by a Jew- 
ish spy, 187. Distribution for 
attacks by, 188. Their attack, 
on the post of Germany, 188 ; 
on the tower of St. Nicholas, 
189 ; on the post of Italy, 190, 
196 ; on the bastion of Eng- 
land, 194. Plunder promised 
to, 200. Make a general at- 
tack, 201. Achmet takes com- 
mand of the, 206. Repulsed, 
215-218. Number of, killed, 
224. Reenforced from Persia, 
228. See Achmet, Constantino, 
Constantinople, Greeks, Mo- 
hammed II., Rhodes, and So- 
liman. 

Tuscans, league by the, 40. 

Tyrants, two classes of, 271. 

U. 

Ulrich of Aarburg, 93. 

Ulrich of Ems, 89, 90. 

Ulrich of Hutten encourages Lu- 
ther, 146. 

Ulrich of Ottenburg, 93. 

Ulrich von Pappenheim, 145, 146. 

Umbria, Duke of Urbino in, 266. 

Unterwalden, attempt at an in- 
trigue in, 76. Treatment of 
the Melchtals in, 78. Exaspe- 
ration in, 79. Melchtal and 
Cunrat go to, 83. Bravery of 
a man from, at the battle of 
Sempach, 93. Landamman of, 
killed, 95. Gives citizenship 
to the son of Griininger, 95. 
See Uri. 



414 



INDEX. 



Urban VIII., Pope, 287. 

Urbino, Duke of, 266. 

Uri, flight to, of Cunrat, 78 ; of 
Arnold von Melchtal, 78, 82. 
Castle built at, by command of 
Gessler, and named, 79, 80. 
Reverence to a hat on a pole 
required at, 80. SlaufFach vis- 
its, 81. Ready for action, 83. 
Conrad Landamman of, 95, 

Uri, Schwytz, and Untervvalden, 
protection of the House of Aus- 
tria proffered to, 74. Austrian 
officers appointed over, 74. Im- 
perial bailiffs asked for, 75. 
Oppressed, 75. Administration 
of justice in, by Austrian offi- 
cers, 75. Apprehensive of Aus- 
trian domination, 75. Request 
made of Albert by, 75. Albert's 
treatment of the messengers of, 

75. Two bailiffs sent to, 76. 
Complain to Albert of treatment 
by his bailiffs, 76. Reply to, 

76. Increased oppression of, 
76-81. Alliance of, 81, 82. 



Valdez, Don Pedro de, yields to 
Drake, 322. 

Valdner, Christopher, 175. Sus- 
tains Buck, 198. Killed, 198. 

Valle, Cardinal de, 258, note. 

Vauxmarcus, Hanns of, 95. 

Vavasor, Sir Thomas, 321. 

Vehus, Doctor, 154. 

Veii, 47. 

Verdier, French General at Zara- 
goza, 328. 

Vere, Sir Francis, Governor of 
Ostend, bravery of, 298. 

Vergati, Nicholas, sent as deputy 
to the Grand Signior, 226. 

Verona, Bishop of, a hostage, 265. 

Versage, Baron, killed at Zarago- 
za, 338. 

Vertot, Abbe, The Siege and Sur- 
render of Rhodes, in the year 
1522, by, 158, 164. Facts as 
to, 162. Writings of, 163. 

Vessel, dimensions of a Portu- 
guese, in 1592, 317. 



Veturius, see Calvinus. 

Victoire, see Notre Dame. 

Vienna, threatened by Turks, 161, 
note. Freed by Sobiesky, 161, 
note. 

Villiers, see Adam. 

Virtue, as regarded by the Soph- 
ists and by Socrates, 28, 30. 

Von Cammerach, see Cammerach. 

Von Eck, see Eck. 

Von Melchtal, see Melchtal. 

Von Miiller, see Miiller. 

Von Pappenheim, Ulrich,145,146 

Von Sickingen, Francis, 144. 

Von Stauffach, see Stautfach. 

Voting, practised by Socrates, 29. 

W. 

Walachia, Turks aided from, 181. 

Waldburgan, Otto Truchseu of, 
95. 

Waldstalle, Delivery of, 74. 

Walleram of Thierstein, Count, 
94. 

Walloons, 302, 303, 304. Visit 
the Armada, 323. 

War, on taking advantage in, 91. 

Warbeck, Vitus, on Luther's en- 
try into Worms, 145. 

Warham, Dr., 275. 

Wartburg, castle of, near Eisen- 
ach, Luther carried to, 156. 
New Testament translated 
there, 157, note. 

Waxen tablets, sent to Sparta, 27. 

Wehingen, Reinhard of, 90. 

Weissenkirchen, 106. 

Werner of Lo, killed, 96. 

Wernherr von Stauffach, see Stauf- 
fach. 

Wiclif, studied by Huss, 99. 
Treatment of the ashes of, 110. 

William IIL, 310. 

William, Duke of Brunswick, 151. 

William, Count of Henneberg, 
151. 

William of Orange, surnamed the 
Silent, 287, 290, 295. 

Wiltshire, Lord of, 282, 283. 

Winkelreid, Arnold Strutthan of, 
bravery of, at Sempach, 93, 
97. Honors to, 98. 



INDEX. 



415 



Winters, Sir William, 326. 

Wittemberg, carriage given to Lu- 
ther by the town-council of, 
143 ; urged to protect him, 
144, note. 

Wolfenschiessen , the Lord of, at- 
tempts an intrigue, 76. Killed, 
78. 

Wolsey, Cardinal, to have an es- 
tate in Naples, 235. Henry 
VIIL, and Catharine of Ara- 
gon, before the legatine court, 
consisting of Campeggio and, 
270. Life of, by Cavendish, 

270, 271. Closing scenes of 
the life of, 270. Controller and 
victim of Henry VHL, 270. 
Shakspeare's representation of, 

271. Appointment of, for the 
legatine court, 273. Bishop of 
Lincoln, 280. Argues for the 
King, 281. Appeal to, by Rid- 
ley, 282. Private interview 
between Henry VHL and, 282. 
Lord of Wiltshire's interview 
with, 282. Interview of, with 
the Queen, 283. See Henry 
VHL 

Women, bravery of, at Rhodes, 
202. Conduct of, at Zaragoza, 
333. 

Worms, Appearance of Luther 
before the Diet at, 141. See 
Charles V., and Luther. 

X. 

Xenophon, Apology of, 31, 32. 

Xerxes, attempt by, to subdue 
Greece, 10. Account of the 
march of, 11. In Trachinia, 
12. Remarks of emissaries re- 
specting, 13. Sends a horse- 
man to Thermopylae to recon- 
noiter, 14. Consultation of De- 
maratus by, 15. Stationary, 
during four days, 15. Troops 
sent by, to attack the Greeks 
at Thermopylse, repulsed, 16. 
Informed of the path Anops, 
17. Detaches Hydarnes to the 
path, 17. Offers a libation, 20. 
Advice to, by Ephialtes, 20. 



Advances and fights, 20. Broth- 
ers of, killed, 21. His inter- 
view Vvith Demaratus, after the 
battle of Thermopylae, respect- 
ing the subjection of Sparta, 

24. Advice to, by Achaemenes, 

25. Follows the advice of 
Achaemenes, 26. Treatment 
by, of the dead body of Leoni- 
das, 26. 



Ysni, freedom of, 95. 

Z. 

Zaragoza, Siege of, in 1808, by 
Southey and Napier, 327. Ac- 
count of, 327, 331. Contract- 
ed for Caesarea Augusta, 327, 
note. Summoned to surrender, 
328. Succored, 329. Noctur- 
nal conflicts at, 329. Dead un- 
buried in, 330. Resolution ta- 
ken by the inhabitants of, 330. 
French retire from, 331. In- 
creased defence of, 331. Hou- 
ses of, 331. In districts, 331, 
335. Personal sacrifices in, 

331. Influences on the people 
of, 332. Punishments in, 332, 
334. Gunpowder made, there, 

332. Supplies in, 332. Con- 
duct of women in, 333. Re- 
appearance of the French be- 
fore, 333. Walls of, fall, 333. 
Resistance in, 333, 334. Grad- 
ual progress against, 334. Hou- 
ses in, fired, 335. Incessant 
fighting in, 335. General as- 
sault on, 337. Propositions 
from, for surrender, 338. Pes- 
tilence and deaths in, 339. 
Condition of, 339. Capitula- 
tion of, 340. iSeeCosso, French, 
Lasnes, and Palafox. 

Zizim, biographical and historical 
facts respecting, 231, note. 

Zofingen,-Gutt and the banner of, 
96. 

Zollern, Frederick of, 90. 

Zog, 97. 

Zurich. 97, 



678 



^*^ 



I*' 



I** 



u* .\^ 




'^ ^ <?_- ('^' -" . * .. V^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proa 

,. ' ^, Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 

1'. 'OO^ Treatment Date: ^^^ ^^ 

PreservationTechnologie 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATI 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 









,\ ^ ON G, '-/^ ' -<='' 



OO^ 



.0-^^ 



■ IB <^ -^ » X "* ^ 






v-^' > 



^^^ ^x. 



^ * ^ 'c 



^^^ 't. 



%^ 



'y> .'v 



.x^" 



K''^>' 




K 




C x^^- 








'^c^. 




■■ ,<) o 


, -e^- 


,"1 , 


N ^^ -^ <.^^ . . '^ 


^ o ^ 




o> « ^^ " ^- 








iS 


. N 


f' A "^- ' '• - ^ 


^ : 


^k^ 


W, ^-^ # 




^^ 


IB '. '^ oN 






'-^ 



,0 o. 



fj^ -^ 



y: .oi •<. ^■i 



•^ ,#^ 



'^.%^ 










" .T.^ 



^0^ 



'7> -^ ^ V 



,o>%^.»;%/'"-'V\-' "'■;*-"^, 



<^ x^««(D>Rt. ^ 



